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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}

'''工作记忆 Working Memory'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref>，对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向有着重要影响<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref>。工作记忆常作为'''短期记忆 short-term Memory'''的同义词，但一些理论学者认为，工作记忆能够调用存储的信息，而短期记忆仅指短期存储的信息，故二者不同<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref>。工作记忆是认知心理学 cognitive psychology、神经心理学 neuropsychology和神经科学 neuroscience的核心概念之一。

'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].

“'''工作记忆 Working Memory'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref>，在20世纪60年代被应用于把大脑比作计算机的理论研究之中。1968年，阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin <ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson    | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M.  | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref>用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前所谓的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}</ref>。短期记忆是在短时间内（以秒为单位）记住信息的能力。如今，大多数理论学者会使用“工作记忆”这一概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念，这体现出对信息操纵观念的重视。

关于工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 对前额叶皮质消融实验的研究（PFC）。'''额叶皮层 frontal cortex'''对认知程序比对感官程序更重要是当时研究得出的一大结论<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref>。在1935年和1936年， 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次披露了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref>

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

关于工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 对前额叶皮质消融实验的研究（PFC）。'''<font color="#ff8000">额叶皮层 frontal cortex</font>'''对认知程序比对感官程序更重要是当时研究得出的一大结论<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref>。在1935年和1936年， 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次披露了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref>

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基于解剖学和认识学，人们设计出工作记忆运行的神经模型，其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下：

基于解剖学和认识学，人们设计出工作记忆运行的神经模型，其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下：

=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===

=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===

[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]

[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]

  [图1：巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]

1974年，Baddeley和Hitch<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley    | first1 = Alan D.  | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref>提出了'''工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory'''——该模型由三个组件构成：'''中央执行器 Central Executive'''、'''语音回路（PL） Phonological Loop (PL)'''、'''视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad'''<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref>。其中，中央执行器作为某种控制中心，负责疏通语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递通道，引导相关信息，抑制无关信息及不当行为，保持认知程序在执行多任务时的协调。中央执行器还会监督信息的整合以及协调各个负责短期信息维护的子系统。语音回路（PL）组件用于存储语音信息并通过不断刷新防止其受损，例如，只要不断重复一个7位数的电话号码它就可以被很好地储存<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref>。而视觉绘板组件则负责存储视觉和空间信息，例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为'''视觉子系统visual subsystem'''（处理形状、颜色和纹理等）和'''空间子系统spatial subsystem'''（处理位置）。

=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===

=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===

{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}

{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}

{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇  Walter Kintsch <ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref>引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”这一概念，即一组能让人从'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中无缝获取日常所需信息的“检索结构” 。也就是说，一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的作用。同样，考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆完全独立于长期记忆的。工作记忆的表征是长期记忆表征的一个子集。工作记忆被处理成两个嵌入层次。第一层为被激活的长期记忆表征（可能会很多，毕竟理论上长期记忆表征的激活是没有上限的）。第二层叫做注意力'''<font color="#ff8000">焦点focus</font>'''，焦点被认为是一种有限能力，可容纳四个激活的表征<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>。

{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇  Walter Kintsch <ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref>引入了“'''长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory'''”这一概念，即一组能让人从'''长期记忆 Long-term Memory'''中无缝获取日常所需信息的“检索结构” 。也就是说，一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的作用。同样，考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆完全独立于长期记忆的。工作记忆的表征是长期记忆表征的一个子集。工作记忆被处理成两个嵌入层次。第一层为被激活的长期记忆表征（可能会很多，毕竟理论上长期记忆表征的激活是没有上限的）。第二层叫做注意力'''焦点focus'''，焦点被认为是一种有限能力，可容纳四个激活的表征<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>。

 

 

== 容量 Capacity ==

奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 在Cowan模型的基础上又添加了一个组件——一个更窄的注意力焦点，一次只能容纳一个'''组块chunk'''。单元素焦点系统嵌在四元素焦点系统之中，用于挑选要处理的单个块。例如，根据Cowan 的“注意力焦点”理论，四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要加工所有数字时（例如，将数字2加到每个数字）必须要先对每个数字进行独立加工（因为大多数人不能同时处理多个数学问题）<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref>。此时Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理，结束后就把焦点转到下一个数字，直到处理完毕<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref>。

工作记忆通常被认为容量有限。1956年，米勒 Miller提出了“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”来量化短期记忆<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref>。他认为年轻人的信息处理能力容量大约是7个元素，称之为组块。组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词等。后续的研究发现，这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别（例如，数字对应7个，字母对应6个，单词对应5个）甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如，长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言，口头内容（数字、字母、单词）的记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度（即音素、音节的量）<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref>以及所用词汇状态（内容所用单词是否为主体所知）<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref>。除此之外，还有其他若干因素也会影响人的记忆规模，因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此，Cowan还是认为年轻人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块（儿童和老年人则更少）<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref>

工作记忆通常被认为容量有限。1956年，米勒 Miller提出了“'''神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven'''”来量化短期记忆<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref>。他认为年轻人的信息处理能力容量大约是7个元素，称之为组块。组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词等。后续的研究发现，这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别（例如，数字对应7个，字母对应6个，单词对应5个）甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如，长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言，口头内容（数字、字母、单词）的记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度（即音素、音节的量）<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref>以及所用词汇状态（内容所用单词是否为主体所知）<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref>。除此之外，还有其他若干因素也会影响人的记忆规模，因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此，Cowan还是认为年轻人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块（儿童和老年人则更少）<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref>

。

。

大多数成年人能够正确地重复7个数字，但有些个体的记忆规模则得到了显著扩充——高达80个数字。这可以通过编码策略培训来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组（通常分3到5组）并将这些组编码为一个独立单元（一个组块）。要实现这一点，参与者必须要将组识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如，埃里克森 Ericsson 和他同事的一位研究对象利用了体育史中各大比赛的时间来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块，形成组块层次结构。如此，只要层次结构最高级别的组块保持在工作记忆中即可——当然这些组块是可检索的。也就是说，工作记忆中的组块是提取数字内容的指向性线索。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch （1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon，2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>）认为，练习这种记忆技巧并不能真正提高工作记忆容量，所提高的是从长期记忆中传递（和检索）信息的能力。

大多数成年人能够正确地重复7个数字，但有些个体的记忆规模则得到了显著扩充——高达80个数字。这可以通过编码策略培训来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组（通常分3到5组）并将这些组编码为一个独立单元（一个组块）。要实现这一点，参与者必须要将组识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如，埃里克森 Ericsson 和他同事的一位研究对象利用了体育史中各大比赛的时间来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块，形成组块层次结构。如此，只要层次结构最高级别的组块保持在工作记忆中即可——当然这些组块是可检索的。也就是说，工作记忆中的组块是提取数字内容的指向性线索。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch （1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon，2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>）认为，练习这种记忆技巧并不能真正提高工作记忆容量，所提高的是从长期记忆中传递（和检索）信息的能力。

=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===

=== 测量和关联 ===

 

我们可以通过一系列任务来测量工作记忆的容量。其中一个方法是双任务范例，它将'''记忆广度测度 memory span measure'''与'''并发处理任务concurrent processing task'''（有时称为“复杂规模”）结合起来。1980年，丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了该方法的第一个版本——“阅读广度”<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref>。受试者阅读大量的句子（通常2至6个），并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref>。其他一些不具备双任务性质的任务同样也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref>。Daneman 和Carpenter 相信“存储”（维护）和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的，现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量，也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref>。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征，这仍是一个待研究的课题。

Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.

 

 

 

我们可以通过一系列任务来测量工作记忆的容量。其中一个方法是双任务范例，它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 memory span measure</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000">并发处理任务concurrent processing task</font>'''（有时称为“复杂规模”）结合起来。1980年，丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了该方法的第一个版本——“阅读广度”<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref>。受试者阅读大量的句子（通常2至6个），并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref>。其他一些不具备双任务性质的任务同样也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref>。Daneman 和Carpenter 相信“存储”（维护）和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的，现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量，也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref>。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征，这仍是一个待研究的课题。

 

 

 

 

一些研究人员认为<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref>，工作记忆容量能够反映执行功能的效率，其中最具代表性的是面对不相关信息时协调多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异（特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时）。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖（但不限于）额叶大脑区域<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref>

一些研究人员认为<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref>，工作记忆容量能够反映执行功能的效率，其中最具代表性的是面对不相关信息时协调多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异（特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时）。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖（但不限于）额叶大脑区域<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref>

。

。

另一些研究人员主张，用个体构建元素间关系或获取信息的能力来测量工作记忆容量更佳。格雷姆 · 哈尔福德Graeme Halford用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力来解释这个想法<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref>。这些发起人要求人们把陈述几个变量之间关系的书面表达与相应的图示（说明相同或不同关系）进行比较，例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国，那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高。但如果蛋糕来自意大利，那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系（国家、成分和糖量）——这是大多数人理解能力的上限。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制（所有相关信息都可完整看到），而是可同时识别关系量的限制。

另一些研究人员主张，用个体构建元素间关系或获取信息的能力来测量工作记忆容量更佳。格雷姆 · 哈尔福德Graeme Halford用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力来解释这个想法<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref>。这些发起人要求人们把陈述几个变量之间关系的书面表达与相应的图示（说明相同或不同关系）进行比较，例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国，那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高。但如果蛋糕来自意大利，那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系（国家、成分和糖量）——这是大多数人理解能力的上限。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制（所有相关信息都可完整看到），而是可同时识别关系量的限制。

Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.

关于'''容量极限capacity limit'''的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种有限认知资源池，作为激活记忆表征以及处理记忆表征的前提<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref>，另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退。又因为刷新速率是有限的，所以我们只能维持一定的信息量<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref>。还有观点认为容量极限是工作记忆中的表征互相干涉的结果<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref>。

理论家们讨论过多种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是，新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">检索竞争 retrieval competition</font>'''。例如当任务是按照一定顺序记住7个单词时，我们需要从第一个单词开始回忆。而在试图检索第一个单词时，我们往往会意外地检索到第二个单词，至于我们最终会回忆起哪个单词，这就得看它们竞争的结果了。回忆中出现的错误通常表现为记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ，这表明检索竞争限制了我们按照正确顺序回忆列表的能力，这种限制也可能发生在其他工作记忆任务中。另一种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时，每一表征都因其他表征的相互作用而模糊不清<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref>。一些人认为特征覆盖也是一种干涉形式<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref>。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表现为一系列特征，当两个项目共享某些特征时，其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多，因此每个条目丢失的特征越多，减损也就越多。

该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''衰退 decay'''，这种衰退只能通过不断刷新来遏制。这种理论来自短期记忆的早期研究<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref>。它同样是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref>。迄今为止，基于衰减假设的最详尽的工作记忆理论是“'''基于时间的资源共享模型 time-based resource sharing model” '''<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref>。该理论假设工作记忆中的表征不断衰退，需要持续刷新来维持。而刷新需要注意力机制——对于任何平行任务都是必需的——的保障。当任务进程中存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时，刷新记忆路径的任务可以在此时完成。因此，该理论推测遗忘量取决于任务进程所需即时注意力的密度，这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量，一是任务进程中各个步骤执行的速率，二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如，如果处理的任务内容是数字添加，那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来的认知负荷更大。在一系列的实验中，巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤的数量或者处理的总时间，而是取决于认知负荷<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref>。

==== 极限 Limitations ====

==== 资源理论====

None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.

理论家们讨论过多种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是，新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是'''检索竞争 retrieval competition'''。例如当任务是按照一定顺序记住7个单词时，我们需要从第一个单词开始回忆。而在试图检索第一个单词时，我们往往会意外地检索到第二个单词，至于我们最终会回忆起哪个单词，这就得看它们竞争的结果了。回忆中出现的错误通常表现为记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ，这表明检索竞争限制了我们按照正确顺序回忆列表的能力，这种限制也可能发生在其他工作记忆任务中。另一种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时，每一表征都因其他表征的相互作用而模糊不清<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref>。一些人认为特征覆盖也是一种干涉形式<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref>。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表现为一系列特征，当两个项目共享某些特征时，其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多，因此每个条目丢失的特征越多，减损也就越多。

== 发展 Development ==

==== 极限 ====

工作记忆的容量在儿童时期逐渐增加，在老年时期逐渐下降<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref>。

工作记忆的容量在儿童时期逐渐增加，在老年时期逐渐下降<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref>。

 

=== 儿童期 ===

 

 

=== 儿童期 Childhood ===

 

 

 

 

 

 

从儿童到青少年这段时间里，人们在针对工作记忆的测试中表现会越来越好，而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者认为工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量研究的支持，研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>。工作记忆对认知发展起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究。该研究表明，根据人在某一年龄上的工作记忆能力可以预测其之后的推理能力<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref>。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也支持了这一观点。该研究分析了认知任务复杂性（情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量）的问题。在一系列任务之中，相同年龄段的儿童可处理难度近似的任务，这与特定年龄下的工作记忆容量会限制人能够处理的问题的复杂度的观点一致<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref>。虽然神经科学研究认为儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种工作记忆任务，但一项功能性磁共振成象元在分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务中的表现之后，发现儿童相对来说较难做到持续激活脑前额叶皮层，反而是后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都表现正常<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref>。

从儿童到青少年这段时间里，人们在针对工作记忆的测试中表现会越来越好，而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者认为工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量研究的支持，研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>。工作记忆对认知发展起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究。该研究表明，根据人在某一年龄上的工作记忆能力可以预测其之后的推理能力<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref>。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也支持了这一观点。该研究分析了认知任务复杂性（情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量）的问题。在一系列任务之中，相同年龄段的儿童可处理难度近似的任务，这与特定年龄下的工作记忆容量会限制人能够处理的问题的复杂度的观点一致<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref>。虽然神经科学研究认为儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种工作记忆任务，但一项功能性磁共振成象元在分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务中的表现之后，发现儿童相对来说较难做到持续激活脑前额叶皮层，反而是后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都表现正常<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref>。

Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old.  Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

人进入老年期后，一系列认知功能都会有所衰退，其中最严重的就是工作记忆<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref>。心理学对此有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 提出的关于认知老化的'''加工速度理论 processing speed theory'''<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref>。普遍而言，人的认知过程随着年龄增长而滞缓。所以Salthouse 认为工作记忆会有更多的衰减机会，从而使其有效容量降低。然而，工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于此，因为老年时期记忆容量的下降速度比速度本身下降的更快<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref>。另一个是琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的'''抑制假说 inhibition hypothesis'''<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref>。该理论假设老年人排除不相关信息的能力不足。因此，工作记忆往往会被不相关内容所干扰，从而降低记忆内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量研究的支持<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref>，但抑制能力的下降能否完全解释为何工作记忆能力下降，目前为止还不清楚。韦斯特  West对老年工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退则提出了一种神经层面的解释<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref>。她认为前额叶皮层对工作记忆有着很大的影响，而随着年龄的增长，前额叶皮与其他大脑区域相比更容易衰退。由衰老引发的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激同步化额叶或左侧颞叶节律来短期逆转<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>。

人进入老年期后，一系列认知功能都会有所衰退，其中最严重的就是工作记忆<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref>。心理学对此有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 提出的关于认知老化的'''<font color="#ff8000">加工速度理论 processing speed theory</font>'''<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref>。普遍而言，人的认知过程随着年龄增长而滞缓。所以Salthouse 认为工作记忆会有更多的衰减机会，从而使其有效容量降低。然而，工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于此，因为老年时期记忆容量的下降速度比速度本身下降的更快<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref>。另一个是琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的'''<font color="#ff8000">抑制假说 inhibition hypothesis</font>'''<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref>。该理论假设老年人排除不相关信息的能力不足。因此，工作记忆往往会被不相关内容所干扰，从而降低记忆内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量研究的支持<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref>，但抑制能力的下降能否完全解释为何工作记忆能力下降，目前为止还不清楚。韦斯特  West对老年工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退则提出了一种神经层面的解释<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref>。她认为前额叶皮层对工作记忆有着很大的影响，而随着年龄的增长，前额叶皮与其他大脑区域相比更容易衰退。由衰老引发的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激同步化额叶或左侧颞叶节律来短期逆转<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>。

== 训练 ==

== 训练 Training ==

托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他实施的开创性研究表明ADHD患者在经过电脑程序训练后工作记忆得到改善<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref>。该研究发现，'''工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training'''可以提高人的一系列认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。针对同一群体的另一项研究<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref>表明，训练之后脑前额叶外皮层——被许多研究人员认为与工作记忆功能相关——的大脑活动测度有所增加。还有一项研究表明，工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref>。然而，同一训练方案的后续工作却未能再现这些有益影响。一份荟萃分析报告显示，持续至2011年的Klingberg 训练对智力和注意力的提升只有微乎其微的影响<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref>。

Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref>.

== 脑内==

Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention.

最初，关于工作记忆神经元和神经递质基础的见解来自于对动物的研究。20世纪30年代，雅各布森 Jacobsen <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref>和富尔顿 Fulton在研究中首次证明了猴子的空间工作记忆能力会因PFC而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster <ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref>的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中有两个相同的杯子，猴子看到实验人员把一点食物放在其中一个下面。然后一个挡板降下，暂时挡住猴子看向杯子的视线（延迟变量）。之后挡板打开，允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地得到了食物——这是动物经过特定训练后应该能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期内维持对食物位置的记忆。Fuster发现在延迟期间，PFC中的大部分神经元被激活了，表明它们参与了在隔离期间对食物位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后'''顶叶皮层posterior parietal cortex'''、'''丘脑thalamus'''、'''尾状核caudate'''和'''苍白球globus pallidus'''也有类似的延迟活动神经元。<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref>高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明，脊髓背外侧的PFC与这些大脑区域相互连接，PFC内的神经元微回路凭借反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息——这些神经元网络在延迟期间是持续激活的<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref>。这些回路由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref>。神经调节性唤起系统对PFC工作记忆功能产生了显著影响; 例如，过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电功能<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref>和工作记忆表现<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref>。

In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.

'''脑成像 brain imaging'''方法（PET和fMRI）的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究证实PFC中的一些区域确实影响了工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代，讨论大多集中在腹外侧区（即较低区域）和背外侧区（较高区域）的不同功能上。一项关于人体损伤的研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中发挥作用提供了额外的证据<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref>。一种观点认为，背外侧区负责空间工作记忆，腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点则是'''功能区分说functional distinction'''，认为腹外侧区域主要负责纯粹的信息维护，而背外侧区域则更倾向于负责记忆材料的处理。虽然分歧并没有彻底解决，但功能区分说还是得到了大多数证据的支持<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref>。

脑成像已经证明工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究表明<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref>，工作记忆任务中的激活区域广泛分布于大脑皮层。其中，空间任务倾向于使用右半球区域，言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层反映维持的组件，以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件（已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域）<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref>

脑成像已经证明工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究表明<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref>，工作记忆任务中的激活区域广泛分布于大脑皮层。其中，空间任务倾向于使用右半球区域，言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层反映维持的组件，以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件（已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域）<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref>

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人们逐渐达成共识，认为大多数工作记忆任务使用的是PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明，这些区域之间的连通性在工作记忆任务的执行过程中有所增加<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref>。另一项研究表明，这些区域是工作记忆所必备的，并非是被意外激活的。通过经颅磁刺激（TMS）暂时阻止它们，从而导致任务性能受损<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref>。

人们逐渐达成共识，认为大多数工作记忆任务使用的是PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明，这些区域之间的连通性在工作记忆任务的执行过程中有所增加<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref>。另一项研究表明，这些区域是工作记忆所必备的，并非是被意外激活的。通过经颅磁刺激（TMS）暂时阻止它们，从而导致任务性能受损<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref>。

目前的争论集中于大脑各个区域功能的研究。研究发现，在许多需要执行功能的任务中，PFC都具有活性。<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" />这使得一些研究人员认为，PFC在工作记忆中的作用是控制注意力，选择策略以及操纵信息，而非信息维护。信息维护功能更多的由大脑后部区域负责——包括顶叶皮层<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref>。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映，因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域同样被激活<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

目前的争论集中于大脑各个区域功能的研究。研究发现，在许多需要执行功能的任务中，PFC都具有活性。<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" />这使得一些研究人员认为，PFC在工作记忆中的作用是控制注意力，选择策略以及操纵信息，而非信息维护。信息维护功能更多的由大脑后部区域负责——包括顶叶皮层<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref>。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映，因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域同样被激活<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

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在2003年，一份对60项神经成像研究结果的元分析发现，左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆，而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。罗德曼大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)的6、8、9号参与需要不断更新的以及需要维持特定顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼10和47号区域较频繁地参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆，其中后顶叶皮层的罗德曼7号区域参与了全部的执行功能<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref>。

在2003年，一份对60项神经成像研究结果的元分析发现，左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆，而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。罗德曼大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)的6、8、9号参与需要不断更新的以及需要维持特定顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼10和47号区域较频繁地参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆，其中后顶叶皮层的罗德曼7号区域参与了全部的执行功能<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref>。

 

我们一般认为，工作记忆包括两种过程——两类过程发生于额叶和顶叶两个不同位置<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref>。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作，其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括'''额上沟superior frontal sulcus'''尾部和'''后顶叶皮质posterior parietal cortex'''的短暂激活，选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活<ref name="Bledowski" />。

 

 

我们一般认为，工作记忆包括两种过程——两类过程发生于额叶和顶叶两个不同位置<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref>。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作，其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括'''<font color="#ff8000">额上沟superior frontal sulcus</font>'''尾部和'''<font color="#ff8000">后顶叶皮质posterior parietal cortex</font>'''的短暂激活，选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活<ref name="Bledowski" />。

 

 

 

脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务。任务过程中，PFC的活跃性增加，'''前扣带皮层anterior cingulate cortex ''' (ACC)的活性也有所增强。那些在任务中表现更好的人的这些区域活性显著提升，且随着时间的推移变得更强。这表明这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高——可能是因为区域间有更强的关联性<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref>

 

 

脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务。任务过程中，PFC的活跃性增加，'''<font color="#ff8000">前扣带皮层anterior cingulate cortex </font>''' (ACC)的活性也有所增强。那些在任务中表现更好的人的这些区域活性显著提升，且随着时间的推移变得更强。这表明这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高——可能是因为区域间有更强的关联性<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref>

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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是模拟神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。

=== 神经模型 ===

在该模型中，脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力完成工作记忆任务，并得到许多研究证明支持<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref>，例如使用'''<font color="#ff8000">消融技术ablation techniques</font>'''治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者等。<ref name=":2" />研究人员发现，这种损害使得工作记忆的执行功能受损。<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>此外还有对因服用'''<font color="#ff8000">甲基苯丙胺 methamphetamine</font>'''而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练后成功增加其基底神经节容量的案例<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref>。

=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===

在该模型中，脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力完成工作记忆任务，并得到许多研究证明支持<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref>，例如使用'''消融技术ablation techniques'''治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者等。<ref name=":2" />研究人员发现，这种损害使得工作记忆的执行功能受损。<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref>此外还有对因服用'''甲基苯丙胺 methamphetamine'''而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练后成功增加其基底神经节容量的案例<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref>。

Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.

急性和慢性心理压力都会损害工作记忆。这最早由安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref>在动物实验中发现。他们发现应激诱导PFC中'''儿茶酚胺 catecholamine'''的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电频率，并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref>。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次的工作记忆缺陷和额外的PFC结构变化——包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref>——这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref>。功能磁共振成像研究已经将这项研究进一步扩展到人类，并证实了急性压力导致的工作记忆减少会降低PFC的活性，同时，压力还会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref>。在经历紧张的考试后，医学院学生的成像研究也表明其PFC功能减弱，与动物实验的结果一致<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref>。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释为何压力会加重甚至导致精神疾病。

人在生活中的压力越大工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就会越低。接受过限制负面思想入侵练习的学生，其工作记忆容量明显有所增加。因此我们说，情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺，进而影响问题解决效果<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref>。

人在生活中的压力越大工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就会越低。接受过限制负面思想入侵练习的学生，其工作记忆容量明显有所增加。因此我们说，情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺，进而影响问题解决效果<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref>。

Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref>

=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 ===

酗酒会损伤大脑，进而损害工作记忆<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref>。酒精会影响'''血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent（BOLD）'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来，这使得其成为测量神经元活动的有效指标<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref>。在执行工作记忆任务时，BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年BOLD反应相应较低。特别的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref>，有酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较弱<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref>。酗酒工作记忆任务表现有显著影响——特别是视觉工作记忆<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>。此外，酒精对工作记忆的影响似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比，女性酒后的非文字工作记忆任务完成得更好，但空间工作记忆任务完成得似乎更差（大脑活动迟缓）<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref>。最后，年龄似乎也是一个可考虑的因素。老年人更容易受到酒精的影响<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref>

 

酗酒会损伤大脑，进而损害工作记忆<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref>。酒精会影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent（BOLD）</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来，这使得其成为测量神经元活动的有效指标<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref>。在执行工作记忆任务时，BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年BOLD反应相应较低。特别的<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref>，有酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较弱<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref>。酗酒工作记忆任务表现有显著影响——特别是视觉工作记忆<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>。此外，酒精对工作记忆的影响似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比，女性酒后的非文字工作记忆任务完成得更好，但空间工作记忆任务完成得似乎更差（大脑活动迟缓）<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref>。最后，年龄似乎也是一个可考虑的因素。老年人更容易受到酒精的影响<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref>

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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===

== 基因 ==

 

=== 行为基因 ===

Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" />

 

工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的，即个体间约一半的差异与基因差异有关<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref>。工作记忆能力变异的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" />

工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的，即个体间约一半的差异与基因差异有关<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref>。工作记忆能力变异的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" />

 

=== 识别个别基因的尝试 ===

=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===

 

 

 

我们对哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因——即工作记忆的语音回路ROBO1<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref>。

我们对哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因——即工作记忆的语音回路ROBO1<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref>。

Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref>

== 在学术成就方面的角色 ==

 

工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。1980年Daneman 和卡朋特 Carpenter首次从工作记忆容量和阅读理解的相关性研究中获得证据<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref>——这在后来几项研究的元分析中也得到了证实<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref>。随后的研究发现，小学生的工作记忆能力能够精确地反映在数学问题解决上<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref>。一项后续研究表明，孩子5岁时的工作记忆能力与智商相比，是我们预测其未来学术成就地更好依据<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref>。

工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。1980年Daneman 和卡朋特 Carpenter首次从工作记忆容量和阅读理解的相关性研究中获得证据<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref>——这在后来几项研究的元分析中也得到了证实<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref>。随后的研究发现，小学生的工作记忆能力能够精确地反映在数学问题解决上<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref>。一项后续研究表明，孩子5岁时的工作记忆能力与智商相比，是我们预测其未来学术成就地更好依据<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref>。

== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==

在一项大规模的筛查研究中，大班教学模式中十分之一的儿童被认为患有工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数人在学术成就上乏善可陈——这与智商无关<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>。同样，国家课程标准把最早在7岁就表现出工作记忆缺陷的儿童定性为低成就学生<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref>。如果没有适当的干预，这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近，一项针对37名具有显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明，基线测量的工作记忆能力（而非智商）可预测两年后的学习结果<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>。这表明低分与工作记忆障碍有关，甚至成为导致教育失败的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中(如'''诵读困难dyslexia'''、'''多动症ADHD'''和失用症)，类似模式是显而易见的<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc =  63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc =  63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys  | first1 = Steve  | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 =  Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher =  Psychology Press | year =  2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc =  63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 =  Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher =  Psychology Press | year =  2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc =   63692704}}</ref>。

有证据表明，较佳的工作记忆表现与能否忽略干扰集中注意力于任务相关信息的神经能力有关<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref>，也就是说训练之后的工作记忆之所以能够改善，是因为上述能力得到了改善<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref>。一项研究表明，工作记忆能力和面对环境刺激人能否控制注意力方向之间存在联系<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref>。因为这种控制会引导人关注相关的信息而忽略与目标无关的刺激——这些刺激往往因其感官显著性（如救护车警报器）而吸引人的注意力<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref>。个体的注意力方向被认为取决于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”发出的信号，这种信号偏好于在后皮质区处理任务<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref>。皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层发出的“自下而上”的信号驱动着由显著刺激引发的注意力。<ref name="attention09" />然而，另一项研究发现，注意力过度集中对在工作记忆能力测量过程中没有起到预期作用<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref>

有证据表明，较佳的工作记忆表现与能否忽略干扰集中注意力于任务相关信息的神经能力有关<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref>，也就是说训练之后的工作记忆之所以能够改善，是因为上述能力得到了改善<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref>。一项研究表明，工作记忆能力和面对环境刺激人能否控制注意力方向之间存在联系<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref>。因为这种控制会引导人关注相关的信息而忽略与目标无关的刺激——这些刺激往往因其感官显著性（如救护车警报器）而吸引人的注意力<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref>。个体的注意力方向被认为取决于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”发出的信号，这种信号偏好于在后皮质区处理任务<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref>。皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层发出的“自下而上”的信号驱动着由显著刺激引发的注意力。<ref name="attention09" />然而，另一项研究发现，注意力过度集中对在工作记忆能力测量过程中没有起到预期作用<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref>

。

。

工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:

工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:

 

注意力缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）: 一些研究者<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref>提出，ADHD 源于特定 '''执行功能（EF） Executive Function (EF)'''领域——如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面——的原发性缺陷<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref>。引用了几项研究之后，研究人员得出一份元分析报告，发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中，ADHD群体有较低的成绩。然而，研究者的结论是EF缺陷既不必然也不足以引发所有的ADHD病例<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" />

 

 

注意力缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）: 一些研究者<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref>提出，ADHD 源于特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能（EF） Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域——如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面——的原发性缺陷<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref>。引用了几项研究之后，研究人员得出一份元分析报告，发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中，ADHD群体有较低的成绩。然而，研究者的结论是EF缺陷既不必然也不足以引发所有的ADHD病例<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" />

。

。

多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、'''自我定向self-direction'''和'''自我调节self-regulation'''有关，但其中的因果关系尚未得到确认。所以目前不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD，还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下，亦或存在着其他联系<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref>。

 

 

多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、'''<font color="#ff8000">自我定向self-direction</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">自我调节self-regulation</font>'''有关，但其中的因果关系尚未得到确认。所以目前不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD，还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下，亦或存在着其他联系<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref>。

 

 

 

 

'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力，还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因，而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref>。

'''帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力，还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因，而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref>。

'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref>

'''阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默症病情的加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆流动性的研究中，一半的老鼠注射了可以引发类阿尔茨海默症的药物，另一半则不注射药物。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫，即完成一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答阿尔兹海默症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref>。

'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默症病情的加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆流动性的研究中，一半的老鼠注射了可以引发类阿尔茨海默症的药物，另一半则不注射药物。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫，即完成一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答阿尔兹海默症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref>。

'''亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease''': 一组研究人员进行了为期30个月的纵向实验，研究工作记忆的功能和关联性。研究发现，亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的关联性降低，而对照组功能正常<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref>

 

 

 

 

'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了为期30个月的纵向实验，研究工作记忆的功能和关联性。研究发现，亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的关联性降低，而对照组功能正常<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref>

。

。

* [[多重记忆模型 Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]

* [[多重记忆模型 Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]

* [[模糊痕迹理论 Fuzzy-trace theory]]

* [[模糊痕迹理论 Fuzzy-trace theory]]

* [[中期记忆 Intermediate-term memory]]

* [[中期记忆 Intermediate-term memory]]

* [[记忆与老化 Memory and aging]]

* [[记忆与老化 Memory and aging]]

* [[PBWM|前额叶基底节工作记忆 Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]

* [[PBWM|前额叶基底节工作记忆 Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]

* [[意识结构 Cognitive architecture]]

* [[意识结构 Cognitive architecture]]

== 参考文献 References ==

== 参考文献 ==

{{Reflist|33em}}

{{Reflist|33em}}

 

== 外部链接 ==

== 外部链接 External links ==

* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]

* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]

[[Category:Human behavior]]

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[[Category:记忆过程]]

[[Category:人类行为]]