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{{Short description|The fit of a species living under specific environmental conditions.}}

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[[File:Flightless Dung Beetle Circellium Bachuss, Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa.JPG|thumb|The [[flightless dung beetle]] occupies an ecological niche: exploiting animal droppings as a food source.]]

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[[File:Flightless Dung Beetle Circellium Bachuss, Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa.JPG|thumb|The [[flightless dung beetle]] occupies an ecological niche: exploiting animal droppings as a food source.|链接=Special:FilePath/Flightless_Dung_Beetle_Circellium_Bachuss,_Addo_Elephant_National_Park,_South_Africa.JPG]]

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In [[ecology]], a '''niche''' is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition.<ref name=Pocheville2015>{{cite book | last1= Pocheville | first1= Arnaud | year= 2015 | chapter= The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/6188833 | editor1-last= Heams | editor1-first= Thomas | editor2-last= Huneman

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In [[ecology]], a '''niche''' is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition.<ref name="Pocheville2015">{{cite book | last1= Pocheville | first1= Arnaud | year= 2015 | chapter= The Ecological Niche: History and Recent Controversies | chapter-url= https://www.academia.edu/6188833 | editor1-last= Heams | editor1-first= Thomas | editor2-last= Huneman

| title= Handbook of Evolutionary Thinking in the Sciences | location= Dordrecht | publisher= Springer | publication-date= 2015 | pages= 547–586 | isbn= 978-94-017-9014-7}}

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</ref><ref name=Levin>

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</ref><ref name="Levin">

Three variants of ecological niche are described by {{cite book |author=Thomas W. Schoener |chapter=§I.1 Ecological niche |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MS-vfT89QMC&pg=PA3 |pages=3 ''ff'' |title=The Princeton Guide to Ecology |editor1=Simon A. Levin |editor2=Stephen R. Carpenter |editor3=H. Charles J. Godfray |editor4=Ann P. Kinzig |editor5=Michel Loreau |editor6=Jonathan B. Losos |editor7=Brian Walker |editor8=David S. Wilcove |isbn=9781400833023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2009}}

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</ref> It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of [[Resource (biology)|resources]] and competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and when [[predator]]s, [[parasite]]s and [[pathogen]]s are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (for example, limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey). "The type and number of variables comprising the dimensions of an environmental niche vary from one species to another [and] the relative importance of particular environmental variables for a species may vary according to the geographic and biotic contexts".<ref name=Peterson>

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</ref> It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of [[Resource (biology)|resources]] and competitors (for example, by growing when resources are abundant, and when [[predator]]s, [[parasite]]s and [[pathogen]]s are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (for example, limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey). "The type and number of variables comprising the dimensions of an environmental niche vary from one species to another [and] the relative importance of particular environmental variables for a species may vary according to the geographic and biotic contexts".<ref name="Peterson">

{{cite book |title=Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49) |isbn=9780691136882 |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |chapter=Species-environment relationships |page= 82 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_h9FlvgM6wC&pg=PA82 |author1=A Townsend Peterson |author2=Jorge Soberôn |author3=RG Pearson |author4=Roger P Anderson |author5=Enrique Martínez-Meyer |author6=Miguel Nakamura |author7=Miguel Bastos Araújo }} See also Chapter 2: Concepts of niches, pp. 7 ''ff''

</ref>

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In ecology, a niche is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition.

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格林尼利亚生态位是由一个物种生活的栖息地及其伴随的行为适应决定的。埃尔顿生态位强调物种不仅在环境中生长并对环境作出反应，而且在生长过程中还可能改变环境及其行为。哈钦森生态位使用数学和统计学来解释物种如何在一个给定的群落中共存。

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The concept of ecological niche is central to ecological [[biogeography]], which focuses on spatial patterns of ecological communities.<ref name=Biogeography>{{cite book |author1=Mark V Lomolino |author2=Brett R Riddle |author3=James H Brown |title=Biogeography |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2009 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0878934867 |quote=The geographic range of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche |page=[https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/73 73] |chapter=The geographic range as a reflection of the niche |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/73 }} [https://www.amazon.com/Biogeography-Third-Mark-V-Lomolino/dp/0878934863/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1400001561&sr=1-1#reader_0878934863 Viewable on line] via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.

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The concept of ecological niche is central to ecological [[biogeography]], which focuses on spatial patterns of ecological communities.<ref name="Biogeography">{{cite book |author1=Mark V Lomolino |author2=Brett R Riddle |author3=James H Brown |title=Biogeography |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2009 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0878934867 |quote=The geographic range of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche |page=[https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/73 73] |chapter=The geographic range as a reflection of the niche |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/73 }} [https://www.amazon.com/Biogeography-Third-Mark-V-Lomolino/dp/0878934863/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1400001561&sr=1-1#reader_0878934863 Viewable on line] via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.

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</ref> "Species distributions and their dynamics over time result from properties of the species, environmental variation..., and interactions between the two—in particular the abilities of some species, especially our own, to modify their environments and alter the range dynamics of many other species."<ref name=Lomolino>

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</ref> "Species distributions and their dynamics over time result from properties of the species, environmental variation..., and interactions between the two—in particular the abilities of some species, especially our own, to modify their environments and alter the range dynamics of many other species."<ref name="Lomolino">

{{cite book |author1=Mark V Lomolino |author2=Brett R Riddle |author3=James H Brown |title=Biogeography |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunderland, Mass |year=2009 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0878934867 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/579 579] |chapter=Areography: Sizes, shapes and overlap of ranges |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/biogeography0000lomo/page/579 }} [https://www.amazon.com/Biogeography-Third-Mark-V-Lomolino/dp/0878934863/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1400001561&sr=1-1#reader_0878934863 Viewable on line] via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.

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</ref> Alteration of an ecological niche by its inhabitants is the topic of [[niche construction]].<ref name=Townsend>

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</ref> Alteration of an ecological niche by its inhabitants is the topic of [[niche construction]].<ref name="Townsend">

{{cite book |title=Ecological Niches and Geographic Distributions (MPB-49) |isbn=9780691136882 |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |chapter=Major themes in niche concepts |page= 11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_h9FlvgM6wC&pg=PA11 |author1=A Townsend Peterson |author2=Jorge Soberôn |author3=RG Pearson |author4=Roger P Anderson |author5=Enrique Martínez-Meyer |author6=Miguel Nakamura |author7=Miguel Bastos Araújo |quote=We will make the crucial distinction between variables that are dynamically modified (linked) by the presence of the species versus those that are not. ... [Our construction] is based upon variables not dynamically affected by the species...in contrast to...those that are subject to modification by niche construction.}}

</ref>

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Viewable on line via Amazon's 'look-inside' feature.

Alteration of an ecological niche by its inhabitants is the topic of niche construction.

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==Grinnellian niche==

The ecological meaning of niche comes from the meaning of niche as a recess in a wall for a statue,<ref name="oxford">{{cite web|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/126748|title=Niche|work=Oxford English Dictionary {{Subscription required}}|access-date=8 June 2013}}</ref> which itself is probably derived from the [[Middle French]] word ''nicher'', meaning ''to nest''.<ref name="webster">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Niche | encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Dictionary | publisher=Merriam-Webster | access-date=30 October 2014 | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/niche}}</ref><ref name="oxford"/>

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The term was coined by the naturalist [[Roswell Hill Johnson]]<ref name=Johnson1910>

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The term was coined by the naturalist [[Roswell Hill Johnson]]<ref name="Johnson1910">

{{cite book |last= Johnson |first= Roswell |date= 1910 |title= Determinate evolution in the color-pattern of the lady-beetles |url=https://archive.org/details/determinateevol00johngoog|location= Washington |publisher= Carnegie Institution of Washington|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.30902 }}</ref>

but [[Joseph Grinnell]] was probably the first to use it in a research program in 1917, in his paper "The niche relationships of the California Thrasher".<ref name=Grinnell1917>{{cite journal |author = Joseph Grinnell |year = 1917 |title = The niche-relationships of the California Thrasher |journal = The Auk |volume = 34 |issue = 4 |pages = 427–433 |url = http://artifex.org/~ecoreaders/lit/Grinnell1917.pdf |doi = 10.2307/4072271 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160310144027/http://artifex.org/~ecoreaders/lit/Grinnell1917.pdf |archive-date = 2016-03-10 |jstor = 4072271 }}</ref><ref name=Pocheville2015 />

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The Grinnellian niche concept embodies the idea that the niche of a species is determined by the [[habitat]] in which it lives and its accompanying [[Behavioral ecology|behavioral adaptations]]. In other words, the niche is the sum of the habitat requirements and behaviors that allow a species to persist and produce offspring. For example, the behavior of the [[California thrasher]] is consistent with the [[chaparral]] habitat it lives in—it breeds and feeds in the underbrush and escapes from its predators by shuffling from underbrush to underbrush. Its 'niche' is defined by the felicitous complementing of the thrasher's behavior and physical traits (camouflaging color, short wings, strong legs) with this habitat.<ref name=Grinnell1917/>

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[[File:Ifugao - 2.jpg|left|thumb|The Grinnellian niche can be described as the "needs" niche, or an area that meets the environmental requirements for an organism's survival. Most succulents are native in dry, arid regions like deserts and require large quantities of sun exposure.]]

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[[File:Ifugao - 2.jpg|left|thumb|The Grinnellian niche can be described as the "needs" niche, or an area that meets the environmental requirements for an organism's survival. Most succulents are native in dry, arid regions like deserts and require large quantities of sun exposure.|链接=Special:FilePath/Ifugao_-_2.jpg]]

Grinnellian niches can be defined by non-interactive (abiotic) variables and environmental conditions on broad scales.<ref name=":1" /> Variables of interest in this niche class include average temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, and terrain aspect which have become increasingly accessible across spatial scales. Most literature has focused on Ginnellian niche constructs, often from a climatic perspective, to explain distribution and abundance. Current predictions on species responses to climate change strongly rely on projecting altered environmental conditions on species distributions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van der Putten|first1=Wim H.|last2=Macel|first2=Mirka|last3=Visser|first3=Marcel E.|date=2010-07-12|title=Predicting species distribution and abundance responses to climate change: why it is essential to include biotic interactions across trophic levels|url= |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=365|issue=1549|pages=2025–2034|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0037|pmc=2880132|pmid=20513711}}</ref> However, it is increasingly acknowledged that climate change also influences species interactions and an Eltonian perspective may be advantageous in explaining these processes.

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格林尼利亚生态位概念体现了这样一种观点，即一个物种的生态位是由其生活的栖息地及其伴随的行为适应决定的。换句话说，生态位是一个物种赖以生存和繁衍后代的栖息地需求和行为的总和。例如，加利福尼亚短尾叶蝉的行为与其生活的灌木丛栖息地一致ーー它在灌木丛中繁殖和进食，并通过从灌木丛到灌木丛的慢慢移动来逃避捕食者。它的“小生境”被定义为对恐龙行为和身体特征(伪装色、短翅膀、强壮的腿)与栖息地的恰当补充。格林尼利亚生态位可以被描述为“需要”生态位，或者说是一个满足有机体生存环境要求的地区。大多数肉质植物原产于干燥、干旱的地区，如沙漠，需要大量的阳光照射。格林尼利安小生境可以通过非交互(非生物)变量和大尺度的环境条件来定义。在这个小生境类别中感兴趣的变量包括平均温度、降水量、太阳辐射和地形方面，这些变量在空间尺度上已经变得越来越容易获得。大多数文献都集中在人参的生态位构造，往往从气候的角度，以解释分布和丰度。目前关于物种对气候变化反应的预测主要依赖于对物种分布变化的预测环境条件。然而，人们越来越认识到，气候变化也影响物种间的相互作用，从埃尔顿学说的角度来解释这些过程可能是有利的。

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This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different [[Succulent plant|succulents]] found in American and African deserts, [[cactus]] and [[euphorbia]], respectively.<ref name=Huggett>

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This perspective of niche allows for the existence of both ecological equivalents and empty niches. An ecological equivalent to an organism is an organism from a different taxonomic group exhibiting similar adaptations in a similar habitat, an example being the different [[Succulent plant|succulents]] found in American and African deserts, [[cactus]] and [[euphorbia]], respectively.<ref name="Huggett">

{{cite book |author=Richard J. Huggett |title=Fundamentals of Biogeography |page=76 |isbn=9780415323475 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZR68HCMmPjoC&pg=PA76 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2004}}

</ref> As another example, the [[anole]] lizards of the [[Greater Antilles]] are a rare example of [[convergent evolution]], [[adaptive radiation]], and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar [[Habitat#Microhabitat|microhabitats]] independently of each other and resulted in the same [[ecomorph]]s across all four islands.

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==Eltonian niche==

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In 1927 [[Charles Sutherland Elton]], a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[ecologist]], defined a niche as follows: "The 'niche' of an animal means its place in the biotic environment, ''its relations to food and enemies''."<ref name=Elton2001>

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In 1927 [[Charles Sutherland Elton]], a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[ecologist]], defined a niche as follows: "The 'niche' of an animal means its place in the biotic environment, ''its relations to food and enemies''."<ref name="Elton2001">

{{cite book

|author = Elton, Charles Sutherland

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= = Eltonian niche = = 1927年，一位英国生态学家对查尔斯·艾尔顿的定义如下: “动物的‘ niche’意味着它在生物环境中的位置，它与食物和敌人的关系。”

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Elton classified niches according to [[foraging]] activities ("food habits"):<ref name=Chase>

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Elton classified niches according to [[foraging]] activities ("food habits"):<ref name="Chase">

"Elton focused on the niche of a species as its functional role within the food chain and its impact upon the environment" {{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Chase |author2=Mathew A. Leibold |title=Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssmcl_ubQUQC&pg=PA7 |page=7 |isbn=9780226101804 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>

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{{quote|For instance there is the niche that is filled by birds of prey which eat small animals such as shrews and mice. In an oak wood this niche is filled by [[tawny owl]]s, while in the open grassland it is occupied by [[kestrel]]s. The existence of this carnivore niche is dependent on the further fact that mice form a definite herbivore niche in many different associations, although the actual species of mice may be quite different.<ref name=Elton2001/>}}

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[[File:Scheelhecke, Landwehrgraben, Biberdämme 2020.JPG|left|thumb|235x235px|Beaver dam in Hesse, Germany. By exploiting the resource of available wood, beavers are affecting biotic conditions for other species that live within their habitat.]]

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[[File:Scheelhecke, Landwehrgraben, Biberdämme 2020.JPG|left|thumb|235x235px|Beaver dam in Hesse, Germany. By exploiting the resource of available wood, beavers are affecting biotic conditions for other species that live within their habitat.|链接=Special:FilePath/Scheelhecke,_Landwehrgraben,_Biberdämme_2020.JPG]]

Conceptually, the Eltonian niche introduces the idea of a species' ''response'' ''to'' and ''effect on'' the environment. Unlike other niche concepts, it emphasizes that a species not only grows in and responds to an environment based on available resources, predators, and climatic conditions, but also changes the availability and behavior of those factors as it grows.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=oldenlab|date=2015-12-19|title=Niche conservatism: which niche matters most?|url=https://depts.washington.edu/oldenlab/niche-conservatism-which-niche-matters-most/|access-date=2021-02-20|website=Olden Research Lab|language=en-US}}</ref> In an extreme example, [[beaver]]s require certain resources in order to survive and reproduce, but also construct dams that alter water flow in the river where the beaver lives. Thus, the beaver affects the biotic and abiotic conditions of other species that live in and near the watershed.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beaver as Engineers: Influences on Biotic and Abiotic Characteristics of Drainage Basins |publisher = Springer |year= 1995 |isbn = 978-1-4613-5714-8 |pages = 117–126 |doi = 10.1007/978-1-4615-1773-3_12 |first1 = Michael M. |last1 = Pollock |first2 = Robert J. |last2 = Naiman |first3 = Heather E. |last3 = Erickson|first4 = Carol A.|last4 = Johnston|author4-link=Carol A. Johnston|first5 = John|last5 = Pastor|first6 = Gilles|last6 = Pinay|editor-first = Clive G.|editor-last = Jones|editor-first2 = John H.|editor-last2 = Lawton}}</ref> In a more subtle case, competitors that consume resources at different rates can lead to cycles in resource density that differ between species.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Competitive Exclusion |jstor= 2460592 |journal = The American Naturalist|date = February 1980 |pages = 151–170 |volume = 115|issue = 2 |first1 = Robert A. |last1 = Armstrong |first2 = Richard |last2 = McGehee |doi=10.1086/283553|s2cid= 222329963 }}</ref> Not only do species grow differently with respect to resource density, but their own population growth can [[relative nonlinearity|affect resource density over time]].

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==Hutchinsonian niche==

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[[File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding.jpg|thumb|The shape of the [[beak|bill]] of this [[purple-throated carib]] is complementary to the shape of the flower and [[coevolution|coevolved]] with it, enabling it to exploit the nectar as a resource.]]

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[[File:Purple-throated carib hummingbird feeding.jpg|thumb|The shape of the [[beak|bill]] of this [[purple-throated carib]] is complementary to the shape of the flower and [[coevolution|coevolved]] with it, enabling it to exploit the nectar as a resource.|链接=Special:FilePath/Purple-throated_carib_hummingbird_feeding.jpg]]

The Hutchinsonian niche is an "[[N-dimensional space|n-dimensional]] hypervolume", where the dimensions are environmental conditions and [[Resource (biology)|resources]], that define the requirements of an individual or a species to practice its way of life, more particularly, for its population to persist.<ref name=Levin/> The "hypervolume" defines the multi-dimensional space of resources (e.g., light, nutrients, structure, etc.) available to (and specifically used by) organisms, and "all species other than those under consideration are regarded as part of the coordinate system."<ref name=Hutchinson1957>{{cite journal | author = Hutchinson, G.E. | year = 1957 | title = Concluding remarks | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 415–427 | url = http://artifex.org/~ecoreaders/lit/Hutchinson1957.pdf | access-date = 2007-07-24 | doi = 10.1101/sqb.1957.022.01.039 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926153803/http://artifex.org/~ecoreaders/lit/Hutchinson1957.pdf | archive-date = 2007-09-26 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

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哈钦森生态位是一个”n 维超体积”，其中的维度是环境条件和资源，这些条件和资源决定了个人或物种实践其生活方式的要求，特别是其种群的持续生存。“超体积”定义了资源的多维空间(例如，光、养分、结构等)以及”除考虑中的物种外，所有其他物种均视为坐标系的一部分。”

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The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist [[G. Evelyn Hutchinson]] in 1957.<ref name=Hutchinson1957/> Hutchinson inquired into the question of why there are so many types of organisms in any one habitat. His work inspired many others to develop models to explain how many and how similar coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of [[Realized niche width#Niche width vs. realized niche width|'niche breadth']] (the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species), [[Niche differentiation|'niche partitioning']] (resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species).<ref name=Chase2>{{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Chase |author2=Mathew A. Leibold |title=Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssmcl_ubQUQC&pg=PA11 |page=11 |isbn=9780226101804 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>

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The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist [[G. Evelyn Hutchinson]] in 1957.<ref name=Hutchinson1957/> Hutchinson inquired into the question of why there are so many types of organisms in any one habitat. His work inspired many others to develop models to explain how many and how similar coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of [[Realized niche width#Niche width vs. realized niche width|'niche breadth']] (the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species), [[Niche differentiation|'niche partitioning']] (resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species).<ref name="Chase2">{{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Chase |author2=Mathew A. Leibold |title=Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ssmcl_ubQUQC&pg=PA11 |page=11 |isbn=9780226101804 |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>

The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist G. Evelyn Hutchinson in 1957. Hutchinson inquired into the question of why there are so many types of organisms in any one habitat. His work inspired many others to develop models to explain how many and how similar coexisting species could be within a given community, and led to the concepts of 'niche breadth' (the variety of resources or habitats used by a given species), 'niche partitioning' (resource differentiation by coexisting species), and 'niche overlap' (overlap of resource use by different species).

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生态位的概念在1957年被动物学家乔治·伊夫林·哈钦森普及。哈钦森探究了为什么在任何一个栖息地都有这么多种生物的问题。他的工作启发了其他许多人开发模型来解释在一个给定的群落中有多少以及如何共存相似的物种，并导致了“生态位宽度”(给定物种使用的资源或生境的多样性)、“生态位划分”(共存物种的资源分化)和“生态位重叠”(不同物种使用的资源重叠)的概念。

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[[File:Resource allocation.png|thumb|Where three species eat some of the same prey, a statistical picture of each niche shows overlap in resource usage between three species, indicating where competition is strongest.]]

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[[File:Resource allocation.png|thumb|Where three species eat some of the same prey, a statistical picture of each niche shows overlap in resource usage between three species, indicating where competition is strongest.|链接=Special:FilePath/Resource_allocation.png]]

thumb|Where three species eat some of the same prey, a statistical picture of each niche shows overlap in resource usage between three species, indicating where competition is strongest.

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拇指 | 当三个物种吃掉一些同样的猎物时，每个生态位的统计图显示三个物种在资源使用上的重叠，这表明哪里的竞争最强。

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Statistics were introduced into the Hutchinson niche by [[Robert MacArthur]] and [[Richard Levins]] using the 'resource-utilization' niche employing histograms to describe the 'frequency of occurrence' as a function of a Hutchinson coordinate.<ref name=Levin/><ref name=MacArthur>{{cite journal |author=Robert H. MacArthur |title=Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests |journal=Ecology |volume=39 |issue=4 |year=1958 |pages=599–619 |url=http://people.biology.ufl.edu/troutinthemilk/IGERT/MacArthur_1958.pdf |doi=10.2307/1931600 |jstor=1931600 |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519002134/http://people.biology.ufl.edu/troutinthemilk/IGERT/MacArthur_1958.pdf |archive-date=2014-05-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> So, for instance, a [[Normal distribution|Gaussian]] might describe the frequency with which a species ate prey of a certain size, giving a more detailed niche description than simply specifying some median or average prey size. For such a bell-shaped distribution, the ''position'', ''width'' and ''form'' of the niche correspond to the ''mean'', ''standard deviation'' and the actual distribution itself.<ref name=Putnam>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCpkrNG6xFkC&pg=PA107 |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofecol00putm/page/107 107] |author1=Rory Putman |author2=Stephen D. Wratten |title=Principles of ecology |chapter=§5.2 Parameters of the niche |isbn=9780520052543 |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofecol00putm/page/107 }}</ref> One advantage in using statistics is illustrated in the figure, where it is clear that for the narrower distributions (top) there is no competition for prey between the extreme left and extreme right species, while for the broader distribution (bottom), niche overlap indicates competition can occur between all species. The resource-utilization approach consists in postulating that not only competition ''can'' occur, but also that it ''does'' occur, and that overlap in resource utilization directly enables the estimation of the competition coefficients.<ref name=Schoener1986>{{cite book |last1=Schoener |first1=Thomas W. |date=1986 |chapter=The Ecological Niche |editor1-last=Cherret |editor1-first=J. M. |title=Ecological concepts: the contribution of ecology to an understanding of the natural world |location=Cambridge |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications}}</ref> This postulate, however, can be misguided, as it ignores the impacts that the resources of each category have on the organism and the impacts that the organism has on the resources of each category. For instance, the resource in the overlap region can be non-limiting, in which case there is no competition for this resource despite niche overlap.<ref name=Pocheville2015/><ref name=Chase2/><ref name=Schoener1986/>

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Statistics were introduced into the Hutchinson niche by [[Robert MacArthur]] and [[Richard Levins]] using the 'resource-utilization' niche employing histograms to describe the 'frequency of occurrence' as a function of a Hutchinson coordinate.<ref name=Levin/><ref name=MacArthur>{{cite journal |author=Robert H. MacArthur |title=Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests |journal=Ecology |volume=39 |issue=4 |year=1958 |pages=599–619 |url=http://people.biology.ufl.edu/troutinthemilk/IGERT/MacArthur_1958.pdf |doi=10.2307/1931600 |jstor=1931600 |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519002134/http://people.biology.ufl.edu/troutinthemilk/IGERT/MacArthur_1958.pdf |archive-date=2014-05-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref> So, for instance, a [[Normal distribution|Gaussian]] might describe the frequency with which a species ate prey of a certain size, giving a more detailed niche description than simply specifying some median or average prey size. For such a bell-shaped distribution, the ''position'', ''width'' and ''form'' of the niche correspond to the ''mean'', ''standard deviation'' and the actual distribution itself.<ref name="Putnam">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCpkrNG6xFkC&pg=PA107 |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofecol00putm/page/107 107] |author1=Rory Putman |author2=Stephen D. Wratten |title=Principles of ecology |chapter=§5.2 Parameters of the niche |isbn=9780520052543 |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofecol00putm/page/107 }}</ref> One advantage in using statistics is illustrated in the figure, where it is clear that for the narrower distributions (top) there is no competition for prey between the extreme left and extreme right species, while for the broader distribution (bottom), niche overlap indicates competition can occur between all species. The resource-utilization approach consists in postulating that not only competition ''can'' occur, but also that it ''does'' occur, and that overlap in resource utilization directly enables the estimation of the competition coefficients.<ref name="Schoener1986">{{cite book |last1=Schoener |first1=Thomas W. |date=1986 |chapter=The Ecological Niche |editor1-last=Cherret |editor1-first=J. M. |title=Ecological concepts: the contribution of ecology to an understanding of the natural world |location=Cambridge |publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications}}</ref> This postulate, however, can be misguided, as it ignores the impacts that the resources of each category have on the organism and the impacts that the organism has on the resources of each category. For instance, the resource in the overlap region can be non-limiting, in which case there is no competition for this resource despite niche overlap.<ref name=Pocheville2015/><ref name=Chase2/><ref name=Schoener1986/>

Statistics were introduced into the Hutchinson niche by Robert MacArthur and Richard Levins using the 'resource-utilization' niche employing histograms to describe the 'frequency of occurrence' as a function of a Hutchinson coordinate. So, for instance, a Gaussian might describe the frequency with which a species ate prey of a certain size, giving a more detailed niche description than simply specifying some median or average prey size. For such a bell-shaped distribution, the position, width and form of the niche correspond to the mean, standard deviation and the actual distribution itself. One advantage in using statistics is illustrated in the figure, where it is clear that for the narrower distributions (top) there is no competition for prey between the extreme left and extreme right species, while for the broader distribution (bottom), niche overlap indicates competition can occur between all species. The resource-utilization approach consists in postulating that not only competition can occur, but also that it does occur, and that overlap in resource utilization directly enables the estimation of the competition coefficients. This postulate, however, can be misguided, as it ignores the impacts that the resources of each category have on the organism and the impacts that the organism has on the resources of each category. For instance, the resource in the overlap region can be non-limiting, in which case there is no competition for this resource despite niche overlap.

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统计学是由罗伯特·麦克阿瑟和 Richard Levins 引入到 Hutchinson 生态位中的，他们使用直方图来描述出现的频率作为 Hutchinson 坐标的函数。所以，比如说，高斯分布可能描述了一个物种捕食一定大小猎物的频率，给出了更详细的生态位描述，而不是简单地指定一些中位数或平均猎物大小。对于这样的钟形分布，位置，宽度和形式的生态位对应的平均值，标准差和实际分布本身。使用统计数据的一个优点在图中得到说明，很明显，在较窄的分布范围(顶部)中，极左和极右物种之间不存在对猎物的竞争，而在较宽的分布范围(底部)中，生态位重叠表明所有物种之间都存在竞争。资源利用方法假定不仅可以发生竞争，而且竞争确实发生，资源利用的重叠直接使竞争系数的估计成为可能。然而，这种假设可能是错误的，因为它忽略了每个类别的资源对生物体的影响，以及生物体对每个类别的资源的影响。例如，重叠区域中的资源可以是非限制性的，在这种情况下，尽管存在利基重叠，但对该资源不存在竞争。

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[[File:Mistletoe infested tree.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|As a hemi-[[parasitic plant]], the [[mistletoe]] in this tree exploits its host for nutrients and as a place to grow.]]

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An organism free of interference from other species could use the full range of conditions (biotic and abiotic) and resources in which it could survive and reproduce which is called its '''fundamental niche'''.<ref name=Griesemer>{{cite book |title=Keywords in Evolutionary Biology |author=James R. Griesemer |page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsinevolut00harv/page/239 239] |editor=Evelyn Fox Keller |editor2=Elisabeth A. Lloyd |chapter=Niche: Historical perspectives |isbn=9780674503137 |year=1994 |publisher=Harvard University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hvm7sCuyRV4C&pg=PA239 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsinevolut00harv/page/239 }}</ref> However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly [[adaptation|adapted]]; this is termed the [[Realized niche width|'''realized niche''']].<ref name=Griesemer/> Hutchinson used the idea of competition for resources as the primary mechanism driving ecology, but overemphasis upon this focus has proved to be a handicap for the niche concept.<ref name=Chase2/> In particular, overemphasis upon a species' dependence upon resources has led to too little emphasis upon the effects of organisms on their environment, for instance, colonization and invasions.<ref name=Chase2/>

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An organism free of interference from other species could use the full range of conditions (biotic and abiotic) and resources in which it could survive and reproduce which is called its '''fundamental niche'''.<ref name="Griesemer">{{cite book |title=Keywords in Evolutionary Biology |author=James R. Griesemer |page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsinevolut00harv/page/239 239] |editor=Evelyn Fox Keller |editor2=Elisabeth A. Lloyd |chapter=Niche: Historical perspectives |isbn=9780674503137 |year=1994 |publisher=Harvard University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hvm7sCuyRV4C&pg=PA239 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsinevolut00harv/page/239 }}</ref> However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly [[adaptation|adapted]]; this is termed the [[Realized niche width|'''realized niche''']].<ref name=Griesemer/> Hutchinson used the idea of competition for resources as the primary mechanism driving ecology, but overemphasis upon this focus has proved to be a handicap for the niche concept.<ref name=Chase2/> In particular, overemphasis upon a species' dependence upon resources has led to too little emphasis upon the effects of organisms on their environment, for instance, colonization and invasions.<ref name=Chase2/>

An organism free of interference from other species could use the full range of conditions (biotic and abiotic) and resources in which it could survive and reproduce which is called its fundamental niche. However, as a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (i.e. inter-specific competition) species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than this, and to which they are mostly highly adapted; this is termed the realized niche. Hutchinson used the idea of competition for resources as the primary mechanism driving ecology, but overemphasis upon this focus has proved to be a handicap for the niche concept. In particular, overemphasis upon a species' dependence upon resources has led to too little emphasis upon the effects of organisms on their environment, for instance, colonization and invasions.

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一个不受其他物种干扰的生物体可以利用其生存和繁殖所需的全部条件(生物和非生物)和资源，这就是所谓的基本生态位。然而，由于来自其他生物的压力，以及与其他生物的相互作用(即。种间竞争)物种通常被迫占据比这更窄的生态位，而且它们大多高度适应这个生态位，这被称为已实现的生态位。哈钦森把资源竞争作为驱动生态学的主要机制，但是过分强调这一点已经证明是利基概念的障碍。特别是，过分强调一个物种对资源的依赖，导致对生物体对其环境的影响重视不够，例如，殖民和入侵。

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The term "adaptive zone" was coined by the paleontologist [[George Gaylord Simpson]] to explain how a population could jump from one niche to another that suited it, jump to an 'adaptive zone', made available by virtue of some modification, or possibly a change in the [[food chain]], that made the adaptive zone available to it without a discontinuity in its way of life because the group was 'pre-adapted' to the new ecological opportunity.<ref name=Schluter>{{cite book |title=The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation |chapter=§4.2: The ecological theory |author=Dolph Schluter |page=69 |isbn=9780191588327 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1wxNmLAL10C&pg=PA69}}</ref>

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The term "adaptive zone" was coined by the paleontologist [[George Gaylord Simpson]] to explain how a population could jump from one niche to another that suited it, jump to an 'adaptive zone', made available by virtue of some modification, or possibly a change in the [[food chain]], that made the adaptive zone available to it without a discontinuity in its way of life because the group was 'pre-adapted' to the new ecological opportunity.<ref name="Schluter">{{cite book |title=The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation |chapter=§4.2: The ecological theory |author=Dolph Schluter |page=69 |isbn=9780191588327 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1wxNmLAL10C&pg=PA69}}</ref>

The term "adaptive zone" was coined by the paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson to explain how a population could jump from one niche to another that suited it, jump to an 'adaptive zone', made available by virtue of some modification, or possibly a change in the food chain, that made the adaptive zone available to it without a discontinuity in its way of life because the group was 'pre-adapted' to the new ecological opportunity.

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=== Niche and Geographic Range ===

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[[File:Competitive exclusion in barnacles eu.svg|thumb|351x351px|Diagram representation of the effects of competitive exclusion on the barnacle ''Chthamalus stellatus'' in the intertidal zone. The fundamental and realized geographic ranges of ''C. stellatus'' are represented by the dark blue and light blue bars, respectively.]]

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[[File:Competitive exclusion in barnacles eu.svg|thumb|351x351px|Diagram representation of the effects of competitive exclusion on the barnacle ''Chthamalus stellatus'' in the intertidal zone. The fundamental and realized geographic ranges of ''C. stellatus'' are represented by the dark blue and light blue bars, respectively.|链接=Special:FilePath/Competitive_exclusion_in_barnacles_eu.svg]]

The [[Species distribution|geographic range]] of a species can be viewed as a spatial reflection of its niche, along with characteristics of the geographic template and the species that influence its potential to colonize. The '''fundamental geographic range''' of a species is the area it occupies in which environmental conditions are favorable, without restriction from barriers to disperse or colonize.<ref name="Biogeography" /> A species will be confined to a its '''realized geographic range''' when confronting biotic interactions or abiotic barriers that limit dispersal, a more narrow subset of its larger fundamental geographic range.

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