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An '''artificial cell''', '''synthetic cell''' or '''minimal cell''' is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a [[Cell (biology)|biological cell]]. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buddingh' BC, van Hest JC | title = Artificial Cells: Synthetic Compartments with Life-like Functionality and Adaptivity | journal = Accounts of Chemical Research | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 769–777 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28094501 | pmc = 5397886 | doi = 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00512 }}</ref> As such, [[liposome]]s, [[polymersome]]s, [[nanoparticle]]s, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.

An '''artificial cell''', '''synthetic cell''' or '''minimal cell''' is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a [[Cell (biology)|biological cell]]. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Buddingh' BC, van Hest JC | title = Artificial Cells: Synthetic Compartments with Life-like Functionality and Adaptivity | journal = Accounts of Chemical Research | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 769–777 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28094501 | pmc = 5397886 | doi = 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00512 }}</ref> As such, [[liposome]]s, [[polymersome]]s, [[nanoparticle]]s, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.

An artificial cell, synthetic cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, liposomes, polymersomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.

An artificial cell, synthetic cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, liposomes, polymersomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.

The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to [[Cell (biology)|biological cells]] and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of [[synthetic biology]], an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture [[energy]], maintain [[electrochemical gradient|ion gradients]], contain [[macromolecule]]s as well as store information and have the ability to [[replicate (biology)|replicate]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Deamer D|date=July 2005|title=A giant step towards artificial life?|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=23|issue=7|pages=336–338|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.05.008|pmid=15935500}}</ref> This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.

The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to [[Cell (biology)|biological cells]] and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of [[synthetic biology]], an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture [[energy]], maintain [[electrochemical gradient|ion gradients]], contain [[macromolecule]]s as well as store information and have the ability to [[replicate (biology)|replicate]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Deamer D|date=July 2005|title=A giant step towards artificial life?|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=23|issue=7|pages=336–338|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.05.008|pmid=15935500}}</ref> This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.

==Top-down approach to create a minimal living cell==

==Top-down approach to create a minimal living cell==

Members from the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] have used a [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes.<ref name="gibson52"/> In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of ''[[Mycoplasma mycoides]]'' ([[Mycoplasma laboratorium]]) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium.<ref name="gibson52"/> It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.<ref name='Beadau'>{{cite book| veditors = Beadau MA | title=The ethics of protocells moral and social implications of creating life in the laboratory| year=2009| publisher=MIT Press| location=Cambridge, Mass.| isbn=978-0-262-51269-5| edition=[Online-Ausg.] | vauthors = Parke EC }}</ref> The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Armstrong R | title = Designing with protocells: applications of a novel technical platform | journal = Life | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 457–490 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25370381 | pmc = 4206855 | doi = 10.3390/life4030457 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete [[in silico]] model for a living minimal organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Breuer M, Earnest TM, Merryman C, Wise KS, Sun L, Lynott MR, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Lapek JD, Gonzalez DJ, de Crécy-Lagard V, Haas D, Hanson AD, Labhsetwar P, Glass JI, Luthey-Schulten Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Essential metabolism for a minimal cell | journal = eLife | volume = 8 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30657448 | pmc = 6609329 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.36842 }}</ref>

Members from the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] have used a [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes.<ref name="gibson52"/> In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of ''[[Mycoplasma mycoides]]'' ([[Mycoplasma laboratorium]]) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium.<ref name="gibson52"/> It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.<ref name="Beadau">{{cite book| veditors = Beadau MA | title=The ethics of protocells moral and social implications of creating life in the laboratory| year=2009| publisher=MIT Press| location=Cambridge, Mass.| isbn=978-0-262-51269-5| edition=[Online-Ausg.] | vauthors = Parke EC }}</ref> The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Armstrong R | title = Designing with protocells: applications of a novel technical platform | journal = Life | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 457–490 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25370381 | pmc = 4206855 | doi = 10.3390/life4030457 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete [[in silico]] model for a living minimal organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Breuer M, Earnest TM, Merryman C, Wise KS, Sun L, Lynott MR, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Lapek JD, Gonzalez DJ, de Crécy-Lagard V, Haas D, Hanson AD, Labhsetwar P, Glass JI, Luthey-Schulten Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Essential metabolism for a minimal cell | journal = eLife | volume = 8 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30657448 | pmc = 6609329 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.36842 }}</ref>

Members from the J. Craig Venter Institute have used a top-down computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes. In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of Mycoplasma mycoides (Mycoplasma laboratorium) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium. It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These top-down approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition. In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete in silico model for a living minimal organism.

Members from the J. Craig Venter Institute have used a top-down computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes. In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of Mycoplasma mycoides (Mycoplasma laboratorium) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium. It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These top-down approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition. In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete in silico model for a living minimal organism.

==Artificial cells for medical applications==

==Artificial cells for medical applications==

[[File:Standard and drug delivery artificial cells .png|thumb|350px|alt=Two types of artificial cells, one with contents meant to stay inside, the other for drug delivery and diffusing contents. |Standard artificial cell (top) and drug delivery artificial cell (bottom).]]

[[File:Standard and drug delivery artificial cells .png|thumb|350px|Standard artificial cell (top) and drug delivery artificial cell (bottom).|链接=Special:FilePath/Standard_and_drug_delivery_artificial_cells_.png]]

thumb|350px|alt=Two types of artificial cells, one with contents meant to stay inside, the other for drug delivery and diffusing contents. |Standard artificial cell (top) and drug delivery artificial cell (bottom).

thumb|350px|alt=Two types of artificial cells, one with contents meant to stay inside, the other for drug delivery and diffusing contents. |Standard artificial cell (top) and drug delivery artificial cell (bottom).

= = = 材料 = =  

= = = 材料 = =  

[[File:Artificial cell membranes.png|thumb|450px|alt=Different types of artificial cell membranes. |Representative types of artificial cell membranes.]]

[[File:Artificial cell membranes.png|thumb|450px|Representative types of artificial cell membranes.|链接=Special:FilePath/Artificial_cell_membranes.png]]

thumb|450px|alt=Different types of artificial cell membranes. |Representative types of artificial cell membranes.

thumb|450px|alt=Different types of artificial cell membranes. |Representative types of artificial cell membranes.

= = = = 封装细胞 = = = =  

= = = = 封装细胞 = = = =  

[[File:Cell capsule schematic.png|thumb|300px|alt=Schematic of cells encapsulated within an artificial membrane.|Schematic representation of encapsulated cells within artificial membrane.]]

[[File:Cell capsule schematic.png|thumb|300px|Schematic representation of encapsulated cells within artificial membrane.|链接=Special:FilePath/Cell_capsule_schematic.png]]

thumb|300px|alt=Schematic of cells encapsulated within an artificial membrane.|Schematic representation of encapsulated cells within artificial membrane.

thumb|300px|alt=Schematic of cells encapsulated within an artificial membrane.|Schematic representation of encapsulated cells within artificial membrane.

====Encapsulated bacterial cells====

====Encapsulated bacterial cells====

The oral ingestion of live bacterial cell [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] has been proposed and is currently in therapy for the modulation of intestinal [[Flora (microbiology)|microflora]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattila-Sandholm T, Blum S, Collins JK, Crittenden R, De Vos W, Dunne C, Fondén R, Grenov G, Isolauri E, Kiely B, Marteau P, Morelli L, Ouwehand A, Reniero R, Saarela M, Salminen S, Saxelin M, Schiffrin E, Shanahan F, Vaughan E, von Wright A | display-authors = 6  |title=Probiotics: towards demonstrating efficacy|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|date=1 December 1999 |volume=10|issue=12|pages=393–399|doi=10.1016/S0924-2244(00)00029-7 }}</ref> prevention of [[diarrheal diseases]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang JS, Bousvaros A, Lee JW, Diaz A, Davidson EJ | title = Efficacy of probiotic use in acute diarrhea in children: a meta-analysis | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 47 | issue = 11 | pages = 2625–2634 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12452406 | doi = 10.1023/A:1020501202369 | s2cid = 207559325 }}</ref> treatment of [[Helicobacter pylori|''H. Pylori'']] infections, atopic inflammations,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Isolauri E, Arvola T, Sütas Y, Moilanen E, Salminen S | title = Probiotics in the management of atopic eczema | journal = Clinical and Experimental Allergy | volume = 30 | issue = 11 | pages = 1604–1610 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11069570 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00943.x | s2cid = 13524021 }}</ref> [[lactose intolerance]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lin MY, Yen CL, Chen SH | title = Management of lactose maldigestion by consuming milk containing lactobacilli | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–137 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9508514 | doi = 10.1023/A:1018840507952 | s2cid = 22890925 }}</ref> and [[immune modulation]],<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gill HS |title=Stimulation of the Immune System by Lactic Cultures|journal=International Dairy Journal|date=1 May 1998 |volume=8|issue=5–6|pages=535–544|doi=10.1016/S0958-6946(98)00074-0}}</ref> amongst others. The proposed mechanism of action is not fully understood but is believed to have two main effects. The first is the nutritional effect, in which the bacteria compete with toxin producing bacteria. The second is the sanitary effect, which stimulates resistance to colonization and stimulates [[immune response]].<ref name=Prakash/>  The oral delivery of bacterial cultures is often a problem because they are targeted by the immune system and often destroyed when taken orally. Artificial cells help address these issues by providing mimicry into the body and selective or long term release thus increasing the viability of bacteria reaching the [[gastrointestinal system]].<ref name=Prakash>{{cite book| vauthors = Prakash S |title=Artificial cells, cell engineering and therapy.|year=2007|publisher=Woodhead Publishing Limited|location=Boca Raton, Fl|isbn=978-1-84569-036-6}}</ref> In addition, live bacterial cell encapsulation can be engineered to allow diffusion of small molecules including peptides into the body for therapeutic purposes.<ref name=Prakash/>  Membranes that have proven successful for bacterial delivery include [[cellulose acetate]] and variants of [[alginate]].<ref name=Prakash/> Additional uses that have arosen from encapsulation of bacterial cells include protection against challenge from [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|''M. Tuberculosis'']]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aldwell FE, Tucker IG, de Lisle GW, Buddle BM | title = Oral delivery of Mycobacterium bovis BCG in a lipid formulation induces resistance to pulmonary tuberculosis in mice | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 71 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–108 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12496154 | pmc = 143408 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.71.1.101-108.2003 }}</ref> and upregulation of Ig secreting cells from the immune system.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Park JH, Um JI, Lee BJ, Goh JS, Park SY, Kim WS, Kim PH | title = Encapsulated Bifidobacterium bifidum potentiates intestinal IgA production | journal = Cellular Immunology | volume = 219 | issue = 1 | pages = 22–27 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12473264 | doi = 10.1016/S0008-8749(02)00579-8 }}</ref> The technology is limited by the risk of systemic infections, adverse metabolic activities and the risk of gene transfer.<ref name=Prakash/> However, the greater challenge remains the delivery of sufficient viable bacteria to the site of interest.<ref name=Prakash/>

The oral ingestion of live bacterial cell [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] has been proposed and is currently in therapy for the modulation of intestinal [[Flora (microbiology)|microflora]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mattila-Sandholm T, Blum S, Collins JK, Crittenden R, De Vos W, Dunne C, Fondén R, Grenov G, Isolauri E, Kiely B, Marteau P, Morelli L, Ouwehand A, Reniero R, Saarela M, Salminen S, Saxelin M, Schiffrin E, Shanahan F, Vaughan E, von Wright A | display-authors = 6  |title=Probiotics: towards demonstrating efficacy|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|date=1 December 1999 |volume=10|issue=12|pages=393–399|doi=10.1016/S0924-2244(00)00029-7 }}</ref> prevention of [[diarrheal diseases]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang JS, Bousvaros A, Lee JW, Diaz A, Davidson EJ | title = Efficacy of probiotic use in acute diarrhea in children: a meta-analysis | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 47 | issue = 11 | pages = 2625–2634 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12452406 | doi = 10.1023/A:1020501202369 | s2cid = 207559325 }}</ref> treatment of [[Helicobacter pylori|''H. Pylori'']] infections, atopic inflammations,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Isolauri E, Arvola T, Sütas Y, Moilanen E, Salminen S | title = Probiotics in the management of atopic eczema | journal = Clinical and Experimental Allergy | volume = 30 | issue = 11 | pages = 1604–1610 | date = November 2000 | pmid = 11069570 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00943.x | s2cid = 13524021 }}</ref> [[lactose intolerance]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lin MY, Yen CL, Chen SH | title = Management of lactose maldigestion by consuming milk containing lactobacilli | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–137 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9508514 | doi = 10.1023/A:1018840507952 | s2cid = 22890925 }}</ref> and [[immune modulation]],<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gill HS |title=Stimulation of the Immune System by Lactic Cultures|journal=International Dairy Journal|date=1 May 1998 |volume=8|issue=5–6|pages=535–544|doi=10.1016/S0958-6946(98)00074-0}}</ref> amongst others. The proposed mechanism of action is not fully understood but is believed to have two main effects. The first is the nutritional effect, in which the bacteria compete with toxin producing bacteria. The second is the sanitary effect, which stimulates resistance to colonization and stimulates [[immune response]].<ref name=Prakash/>  The oral delivery of bacterial cultures is often a problem because they are targeted by the immune system and often destroyed when taken orally. Artificial cells help address these issues by providing mimicry into the body and selective or long term release thus increasing the viability of bacteria reaching the [[gastrointestinal system]].<ref name="Prakash">{{cite book| vauthors = Prakash S |title=Artificial cells, cell engineering and therapy.|year=2007|publisher=Woodhead Publishing Limited|location=Boca Raton, Fl|isbn=978-1-84569-036-6}}</ref> In addition, live bacterial cell encapsulation can be engineered to allow diffusion of small molecules including peptides into the body for therapeutic purposes.<ref name=Prakash/>  Membranes that have proven successful for bacterial delivery include [[cellulose acetate]] and variants of [[alginate]].<ref name=Prakash/> Additional uses that have arosen from encapsulation of bacterial cells include protection against challenge from [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|''M. Tuberculosis'']]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aldwell FE, Tucker IG, de Lisle GW, Buddle BM | title = Oral delivery of Mycobacterium bovis BCG in a lipid formulation induces resistance to pulmonary tuberculosis in mice | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 71 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–108 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12496154 | pmc = 143408 | doi = 10.1128/IAI.71.1.101-108.2003 }}</ref> and upregulation of Ig secreting cells from the immune system.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Park JH, Um JI, Lee BJ, Goh JS, Park SY, Kim WS, Kim PH | title = Encapsulated Bifidobacterium bifidum potentiates intestinal IgA production | journal = Cellular Immunology | volume = 219 | issue = 1 | pages = 22–27 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12473264 | doi = 10.1016/S0008-8749(02)00579-8 }}</ref> The technology is limited by the risk of systemic infections, adverse metabolic activities and the risk of gene transfer.<ref name=Prakash/> However, the greater challenge remains the delivery of sufficient viable bacteria to the site of interest.<ref name=Prakash/>

The oral ingestion of live bacterial cell colonies has been proposed and is currently in therapy for the modulation of intestinal microflora, prevention of diarrheal diseases, treatment of H. Pylori infections, atopic inflammations, lactose intolerance and immune modulation, amongst others. The proposed mechanism of action is not fully understood but is believed to have two main effects. The first is the nutritional effect, in which the bacteria compete with toxin producing bacteria. The second is the sanitary effect, which stimulates resistance to colonization and stimulates immune response.  The oral delivery of bacterial cultures is often a problem because they are targeted by the immune system and often destroyed when taken orally. Artificial cells help address these issues by providing mimicry into the body and selective or long term release thus increasing the viability of bacteria reaching the gastrointestinal system. In addition, live bacterial cell encapsulation can be engineered to allow diffusion of small molecules including peptides into the body for therapeutic purposes.  Membranes that have proven successful for bacterial delivery include cellulose acetate and variants of alginate. Additional uses that have arosen from encapsulation of bacterial cells include protection against challenge from M. Tuberculosis and upregulation of Ig secreting cells from the immune system. The technology is limited by the risk of systemic infections, adverse metabolic activities and the risk of gene transfer. However, the greater challenge remains the delivery of sufficient viable bacteria to the site of interest.

The oral ingestion of live bacterial cell colonies has been proposed and is currently in therapy for the modulation of intestinal microflora, prevention of diarrheal diseases, treatment of H. Pylori infections, atopic inflammations, lactose intolerance and immune modulation, amongst others. The proposed mechanism of action is not fully understood but is believed to have two main effects. The first is the nutritional effect, in which the bacteria compete with toxin producing bacteria. The second is the sanitary effect, which stimulates resistance to colonization and stimulates immune response.  The oral delivery of bacterial cultures is often a problem because they are targeted by the immune system and often destroyed when taken orally. Artificial cells help address these issues by providing mimicry into the body and selective or long term release thus increasing the viability of bacteria reaching the gastrointestinal system. In addition, live bacterial cell encapsulation can be engineered to allow diffusion of small molecules including peptides into the body for therapeutic purposes.  Membranes that have proven successful for bacterial delivery include cellulose acetate and variants of alginate. Additional uses that have arosen from encapsulation of bacterial cells include protection against challenge from M. Tuberculosis and upregulation of Ig secreting cells from the immune system. The technology is limited by the risk of systemic infections, adverse metabolic activities and the risk of gene transfer. However, the greater challenge remains the delivery of sufficient viable bacteria to the site of interest.