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第7行：
第7行： − 人工细胞、人工合成细胞或最小细胞是一种模仿生物细胞单个或多个功能的工程粒子。通常，人工细胞是包裹生物活性物质的生物膜或聚合物膜。因此，脂质体、聚合物泡囊、纳米微粒、微胶囊和其他一些颗粒可以被定性为人工细胞。 ここまで！！！！！+ 第13行：
第13行： − ”人造细胞”和”合成细胞”这两个术语用于各种不同的领域，可能有不同的含义，因为它们也反映在本文的不同章节中。一些更严格的定义是基于这样的假设，即”细胞”一词直接与生物细胞有关，因此这些结构必须是活的(或活的有机体的一部分) ，而且”人工”一词意味着这些结构是从下往上人工建造的，即。从基本组成部分。因此，在合成生物学领域，人造细胞可以被理解为一个完全合成的细胞，可以捕获能量，维持离子梯度，包含大分子，以及存储信息，并具有复制能力。这种人造细胞还没有制造出来。+ 第19行：
第19行： − + 第25行：
第25行： − 在其他领域,”人造细胞”一词可指在尺寸或结构上有点象生物细胞的任何隔间，这种隔间是由非生物成分合成的，甚至是完全由非生物成分制成的。术语“人工细胞”也用于具有直接应用的结构，例如用于药物传递的隔室。微囊化可以促进细胞膜内的新陈代谢，交换小分子，防止大型物质通过细胞膜。包囊的主要优点包括改善体内的拟态，增加货物的溶解性和减少免疫反应。值得注意的是，人工细胞在临床上已成功应用于血液灌流。+ + + − + 第40行：
第42行： − 自下而上构建人造细胞的方法包括完全用非生物材料创造原始细胞。正如术语“细胞”所暗示的那样，一个先决条件是生成某种定义单个细胞单元的隔间。磷脂膜是一个明显的选择作为划分界限，因为他们作为选择性屏障在所有活的生物细胞。科学家可以将生物分子包裹在细胞大小的磷脂小泡中，通过这种方法，观察这些分子在生物细胞中的作用类似，从而重建某些细胞功能。类似地，功能性生物构建块可以被封装在这些脂室中，以实现人工细胞的合成(无论多么初级)。+ 第46行：
第48行： − 提出利用合成的遗传信息创造具有 DNA 自我繁殖能力的磷脂双分子层囊泡。这种人造细胞的三个主要成分是脂膜的形成、通过模板过程进行的 DNA 和 RNA 复制以及化学能量的收集，以便在脂膜上进行主动运输。预见和遇到的主要障碍与这个拟议的原始细胞是创造一个最小的合成 DNA，其中包含所有足够的生命信息，以及非遗传成分的复制是细胞发展中不可或缺的，如分子自我组织。但是，希望这种自下而上的方法能够深入了解组织在细胞层面的基本问题和生物生命的起源。迄今为止，还没有利用生命分子合成出能够自我繁殖的完全人造细胞，尽管目前各种团体正朝着这一目标努力，但这一目标仍然是遥远的未来。+ 第52行：
第54行： − 另一种创造原始细胞的方法更接近于被认为存在于被称为原始汤的进化过程中的条件。各种 RNA 聚合物可以被囊泡包裹，在这样小的边界条件下，化学反应将被测试。+ + + − 原细胞研究引起了争议和反对意见，包括对”人工生命”的模糊定义的批评。创造一个基本的生命单位是最紧迫的伦理问题，尽管最普遍的担忧是原始细胞通过不受控制的复制对人类健康和环境的潜在威胁。+ + + − 2010年代中期，研究界开始认识到有必要统一合成细胞研究领域，承认用非生物成分构建整个活体的任务超出了一个国家的资源范围。+ 第72行：
第78行： − 2017年开始了国际合成活细胞建造大规模研究合作，以建造合成活细胞，随后在若干国家开展了国家合成细胞组织。这些全国性组织包括 FabriCell、 MaxSynBio 和 BaSyC。欧洲合成细胞的努力在2019年被统一为 SynCellEU 倡议。+ − + + +
无编辑摘要
An artificial cell, synthetic cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, liposomes, polymersomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.
An artificial cell, synthetic cell or minimal cell is an engineered particle that mimics one or many functions of a biological cell. Often, artificial cells are biological or polymeric membranes which enclose biologically active materials. As such, liposomes, polymersomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules and a number of other particles can qualify as artificial cells.
人工细胞、人工合成细胞或最小细胞是一种模仿生物细胞单个或多个功能的工程粒子。通常，人工细胞是包裹生物活性物质的生物膜或聚合物膜。因此，脂质体、聚合物泡囊、纳米微粒、微胶囊和其他一些颗粒可以被定性为人工细胞。
The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to [[Cell (biology)|biological cells]] and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of [[synthetic biology]], an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture [[energy]], maintain [[electrochemical gradient|ion gradients]], contain [[macromolecule]]s as well as store information and have the ability to [[replicate (biology)|replicate]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Deamer D|date=July 2005|title=A giant step towards artificial life?|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=23|issue=7|pages=336–338|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.05.008|pmid=15935500}}</ref> This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.
The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to [[Cell (biology)|biological cells]] and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of [[synthetic biology]], an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture [[energy]], maintain [[electrochemical gradient|ion gradients]], contain [[macromolecule]]s as well as store information and have the ability to [[replicate (biology)|replicate]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Deamer D|date=July 2005|title=A giant step towards artificial life?|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=23|issue=7|pages=336–338|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.05.008|pmid=15935500}}</ref> This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.
The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to biological cells and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of synthetic biology, an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to replicate. This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.
The terms "artificial cell" and "synthetic cell" are used in a variety of different fields and can have different meanings, as it is also reflected in the different sections of this article. Some stricter definitions are based on the assumption that the term "cell" directly relates to biological cells and that these structures therefore have to be alive (or part of a living organism) and, further, that the term "artificial" implies that these structures are artificially built from the bottom-up, i.e. from basic components. As such, in the area of synthetic biology, an artificial cell can be understood as a completely synthetically made cell that can capture energy, maintain ion gradients, contain macromolecules as well as store information and have the ability to replicate. This kind of artificial cell has not yet been made.
”人工细胞”和”人工合成细胞”这两个术语用于各种不同的领域，可以具有不同的含义，它们也反映在文章的不同章节中。一些更严格的定义是基于这样的假设：“细胞”一词直接与生物细胞有关，因此这些结构必须是活的(或活的有机体的一部分) ，而“人工”一词则意味着这些结构是自下而上人工建造的，即源于基本组成部分。因此，在合成生物学领域，人工细胞可以被理解为一个完全合成的细胞，可以捕获能量，维持离子梯度，包含大分子，以及存储信息，并具有复制能力。目前，这种人工细胞还没有被制造出来。
However, in other cases, the term "artificial" does not imply that the entire structure is man-made, but instead, it can refer to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity.
However, in other cases, the term "artificial" does not imply that the entire structure is man-made, but instead, it can refer to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity.
However, in other cases, the term "artificial" does not imply that the entire structure is man-made, but instead, it can refer to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity.
However, in other cases, the term "artificial" does not imply that the entire structure is man-made, but instead, it can refer to the idea that certain functions or structures of biological cells can be replaced or supplemented with a synthetic entity.
然而，在其他情况下,”人造”一词并不意味着整个结构是人造的，而是指生物细胞的某些功能或结构可以用合成实体取代或补充的想法。
然而，在其他情况下,”人工”一词并不意味着整个结构是人造的，而是指一种生物细胞的某些功能或结构可以用合成实体取代或补充的想法。
In other fields, the term "artificial cell" can refer to any compartment that somewhat resembles a biological cell in size or structure, which is synthetically made, or even fully made from non-biological components. The term "artificial cell" is also used for structures with direct applications such as compartments for drug delivery. [[Micro-encapsulation]] allows for [[metabolism]] within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it.<ref name="Chang 2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Chang TM | title=Artificial cells : biotechnology, nanomedicine, regenerative medicine, blood substitutes, bioencapsulation, cell/stem cell therapy | year=2007 | publisher=World Scientific | location=Hackensack, N.J. | isbn=978-981-270-576-1 }}</ref><ref name="Prakash" /> The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased [[solubility]] of the cargo and decreased [[immune system|immune responses]]. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in [[hemoperfusion]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gebelein CG | title=Polymeric materials and artificial organs based on a symposium sponsored by the Division of Organic Coatings and Plastics Chemistry at the 185th Meeting of the American Chemical Society | year=1983 | publisher=American Chemical Society | location=Washington, D.C. | isbn=978-0-8412-1084-4 }}</ref>
In other fields, the term "artificial cell" can refer to any compartment that somewhat resembles a biological cell in size or structure, which is synthetically made, or even fully made from non-biological components. The term "artificial cell" is also used for structures with direct applications such as compartments for drug delivery. [[Micro-encapsulation]] allows for [[metabolism]] within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it.<ref name="Chang 2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Chang TM | title=Artificial cells : biotechnology, nanomedicine, regenerative medicine, blood substitutes, bioencapsulation, cell/stem cell therapy | year=2007 | publisher=World Scientific | location=Hackensack, N.J. | isbn=978-981-270-576-1 }}</ref><ref name="Prakash" /> The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased [[solubility]] of the cargo and decreased [[immune system|immune responses]]. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in [[hemoperfusion]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Gebelein CG | title=Polymeric materials and artificial organs based on a symposium sponsored by the Division of Organic Coatings and Plastics Chemistry at the 185th Meeting of the American Chemical Society | year=1983 | publisher=American Chemical Society | location=Washington, D.C. | isbn=978-0-8412-1084-4 }}</ref>
In other fields, the term "artificial cell" can refer to any compartment that somewhat resembles a biological cell in size or structure, which is synthetically made, or even fully made from non-biological components. The term "artificial cell" is also used for structures with direct applications such as compartments for drug delivery. Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in hemoperfusion.
In other fields, the term "artificial cell" can refer to any compartment that somewhat resembles a biological cell in size or structure, which is synthetically made, or even fully made from non-biological components. The term "artificial cell" is also used for structures with direct applications such as compartments for drug delivery. Micro-encapsulation allows for metabolism within the membrane, exchange of small molecules and prevention of passage of large substances across it. The main advantages of encapsulation include improved mimicry in the body, increased solubility of the cargo and decreased immune responses. Notably, artificial cells have been clinically successful in hemoperfusion.
在其他领域，“人工细胞”一词可指在尺寸或结构方面，一定程度上类似于生物细胞的，由非生物成分合成的，甚至是完全由非生物成分制成的任何隔室。术语“人工细胞”也用于具有直接应用的结构，例如用于药物传递的隔室。微囊化可以促进细胞膜内的新陈代谢，交换小分子，防止大型物质通过。包囊的主要优点包括改善体内的拟态，提高物质的溶解性和减少免疫反应。值得注意的是，人工细胞在临床上已成功应用于血液灌流。
{{Synthetic biology}}
{{Synthetic biology}}
==Bottom-up engineering of living artificial cells==
==Bottom-up engineering of living artificial cells==
活人造细胞的底层工程
The German pathologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "''Omnis cellula e cellula''".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Virchow RL | date = 1858 | title = Die cellularpathologie in ihrer begründung auf physiologische und pathologische gewebelehre | url = https://archive.org/details/diecellularpatho1858virc | trans-title = Cellular pathology in its justification of physiological and pathological histology | language = de | series = Zwanzig Vorlesungen gehalten wahrend der Monate Februar, Marz und April 1858 | publisher = Verlag von August Hirschwald | location = Berlin | page = xv }}</ref> Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[Translation (biology)|translation]] reactions allow the expression of many [[genes]], but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.
The German pathologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "''Omnis cellula e cellula''".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Virchow RL | date = 1858 | title = Die cellularpathologie in ihrer begründung auf physiologische und pathologische gewebelehre | url = https://archive.org/details/diecellularpatho1858virc | trans-title = Cellular pathology in its justification of physiological and pathological histology | language = de | series = Zwanzig Vorlesungen gehalten wahrend der Monate Februar, Marz und April 1858 | publisher = Verlag von August Hirschwald | location = Berlin | page = xv }}</ref> Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[Translation (biology)|translation]] reactions allow the expression of many [[genes]], but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.
The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "Omnis cellula e cellula". Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.
The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell; "Omnis cellula e cellula". Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free transcription and translation reactions allow the expression of many genes, but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.
德国病理学家鲁道夫 · 韦尔乔夫提出了这样一个观点: 生命不仅来自细胞，而且每一个细胞都来自另一个细胞。到目前为止，大多数创建人工细胞的尝试都只创建了能够模仿细胞特定任务的包。在无细胞转录和翻译反应的进步允许许多基因的表达，但这些努力远远没有产生一个完全运作的细胞。
德国病理学家鲁道夫 · 韦尔乔夫提出了这样一个观点: 生命不仅来自细胞，而且每一个细胞都来自另一个细胞。到目前为止，大多数创建人工细胞的尝试都只创建了能够模仿细胞特定任务的包。虽然无细胞转录和翻译反应的进展使许多基因得以表达，但这些努力与产生一个完全运作的细胞还有很远的距离。
A [[Top-down and bottom-up design|bottom-up]] approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a [[protocell]] ''de novo'', entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies, one prerequisite is the generation of some sort of compartment that defines an individual, cellular unit. [[phospholipid bilayer|Phospholipid membranes]] are an obvious choice as compartmentalizing boundaries,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamiya K, Takeuchi S | title = Giant liposome formation toward the synthesis of well-defined artificial cells | journal = Journal of Materials Chemistry B | volume = 5 | issue = 30 | pages = 5911–5923 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 32264347 | doi = 10.1039/C7TB01322A }}</ref> as they act as selective barriers in all living biological cells. Scientists can encapsulate biomolecules in cell-sized phospholipid [[Unilamellar liposome|vesicles]] and by doing so, observe these molecules to act similarly as in biological cells and thereby recreate certain cell functions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Litschel T, Schwille P | title = Protein Reconstitution Inside Giant Unilamellar Vesicles | journal = Annual Review of Biophysics | volume = 50 | pages = 525–548 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33667121 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-biophys-100620-114132 | s2cid = 232131463 }}</ref> In a similar way, functional biological building blocks can be encapsulated in these lipid compartments to achieve the synthesis of (however rudimentary) artificial cells.
A [[Top-down and bottom-up design|bottom-up]] approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a [[protocell]] ''de novo'', entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies, one prerequisite is the generation of some sort of compartment that defines an individual, cellular unit. [[phospholipid bilayer|Phospholipid membranes]] are an obvious choice as compartmentalizing boundaries,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kamiya K, Takeuchi S | title = Giant liposome formation toward the synthesis of well-defined artificial cells | journal = Journal of Materials Chemistry B | volume = 5 | issue = 30 | pages = 5911–5923 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 32264347 | doi = 10.1039/C7TB01322A }}</ref> as they act as selective barriers in all living biological cells. Scientists can encapsulate biomolecules in cell-sized phospholipid [[Unilamellar liposome|vesicles]] and by doing so, observe these molecules to act similarly as in biological cells and thereby recreate certain cell functions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Litschel T, Schwille P | title = Protein Reconstitution Inside Giant Unilamellar Vesicles | journal = Annual Review of Biophysics | volume = 50 | pages = 525–548 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33667121 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-biophys-100620-114132 | s2cid = 232131463 }}</ref> In a similar way, functional biological building blocks can be encapsulated in these lipid compartments to achieve the synthesis of (however rudimentary) artificial cells.
A bottom-up approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a protocell de novo, entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies, one prerequisite is the generation of some sort of compartment that defines an individual, cellular unit. Phospholipid membranes are an obvious choice as compartmentalizing boundaries, as they act as selective barriers in all living biological cells. Scientists can encapsulate biomolecules in cell-sized phospholipid vesicles and by doing so, observe these molecules to act similarly as in biological cells and thereby recreate certain cell functions. In a similar way, functional biological building blocks can be encapsulated in these lipid compartments to achieve the synthesis of (however rudimentary) artificial cells.
A bottom-up approach to build an artificial cell would involve creating a protocell de novo, entirely from non-living materials. As the term "cell" implies, one prerequisite is the generation of some sort of compartment that defines an individual, cellular unit. Phospholipid membranes are an obvious choice as compartmentalizing boundaries, as they act as selective barriers in all living biological cells. Scientists can encapsulate biomolecules in cell-sized phospholipid vesicles and by doing so, observe these molecules to act similarly as in biological cells and thereby recreate certain cell functions. In a similar way, functional biological building blocks can be encapsulated in these lipid compartments to achieve the synthesis of (however rudimentary) artificial cells.
自下而上构建人工细胞的方法涉及创建一个完全由非生物材料构成的原生质体。正如术语“细胞”所暗示的那样，一个前提是要生成某种定义了单个细胞单元的隔室。由于磷脂膜在所有活的生物细胞中起着选择性屏障的作用，因此可以选择磷脂膜作为一个明显的划分界限。科学家通过将生物分子包裹在细胞大小的磷脂小泡中，观察这些分子在生物细胞中的类似作用，从而重建某些细胞功能。类似地，功能性生物构建模块可以被封装在这些脂质隔室中，以实现人工细胞的合成(无论多么初级)。
It is proposed to create a phospholipid bilayer vesicle with DNA capable of self-reproducing using synthetic genetic information. The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a [[lipid membrane]], [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for [[active transport]] across the membrane.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Szostak JW, Bartel DP, Luisi PL | title = Synthesizing life | journal = Nature | volume = 409 | issue = 6818 | pages = 387–390 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11201752 | doi = 10.1038/35053176 | s2cid = 4429162 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pohorille A, Deamer D | title = Artificial cells: prospects for biotechnology | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 123–128 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11841864 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(02)01909-1 | hdl = 2060/20020043286 }}</ref> The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Noireaux V, Maeda YT, Libchaber A | title = Development of an artificial cell, from self-organization to computation and self-reproduction | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 9 | pages = 3473–3480 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21317359 | pmc = 3048108 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1017075108 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011PNAS..108.3473N }}</ref> However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rasmussen S, Chen L, Nilsson M, Abe S | title = Bridging nonliving and living matter | journal = Artificial Life | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 269–316 | date = Summer 2003 | pmid = 14556688 | doi = 10.1162/106454603322392479 | s2cid = 6076707 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.101.1606 }}</ref>
It is proposed to create a phospholipid bilayer vesicle with DNA capable of self-reproducing using synthetic genetic information. The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a [[lipid membrane]], [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for [[active transport]] across the membrane.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Szostak JW, Bartel DP, Luisi PL | title = Synthesizing life | journal = Nature | volume = 409 | issue = 6818 | pages = 387–390 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11201752 | doi = 10.1038/35053176 | s2cid = 4429162 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pohorille A, Deamer D | title = Artificial cells: prospects for biotechnology | journal = Trends in Biotechnology | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 123–128 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11841864 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-7799(02)01909-1 | hdl = 2060/20020043286 }}</ref> The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Noireaux V, Maeda YT, Libchaber A | title = Development of an artificial cell, from self-organization to computation and self-reproduction | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 9 | pages = 3473–3480 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21317359 | pmc = 3048108 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1017075108 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2011PNAS..108.3473N }}</ref> However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rasmussen S, Chen L, Nilsson M, Abe S | title = Bridging nonliving and living matter | journal = Artificial Life | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 269–316 | date = Summer 2003 | pmid = 14556688 | doi = 10.1162/106454603322392479 | s2cid = 6076707 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.101.1606 }}</ref>
It is proposed to create a phospholipid bilayer vesicle with DNA capable of self-reproducing using synthetic genetic information. The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a lipid membrane, DNA and RNA replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for active transport across the membrane. The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization. However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal.
It is proposed to create a phospholipid bilayer vesicle with DNA capable of self-reproducing using synthetic genetic information. The three primary elements of such artificial cells are the formation of a lipid membrane, DNA and RNA replication through a template process and the harvesting of chemical energy for active transport across the membrane. The main hurdles foreseen and encountered with this proposed protocell are the creation of a minimal synthetic DNA that holds all sufficient information for life, and the reproduction of non-genetic components that are integral in cell development such as molecular self-organization. However, it is hoped that this kind of bottom-up approach would provide insight into the fundamental questions of organizations at the cellular level and the origins of biological life. So far, no completely artificial cell capable of self-reproduction has been synthesized using the molecules of life, and this objective is still in a distant future although various groups are currently working towards this goal.
人们想到利用合成遗传信息，制备具有DNA自复制能力的磷脂双层囊泡。脂质膜的形成、通过模板过程进行的 DNA 和 RNA 复制、为了在脂膜上进行主动运输的化学能量的收集，是这种人工细胞的三个基本元素。这个原始细胞将会遇到的主要障碍是创建一个最小的包含所有足够的生命信息的合成DNA，以及细胞发展中不可或缺的非遗传成分的复制，如分子自我组织。不过，人们希望通过这种自下而上的方法，更深入了解关于在细胞层面组织的基本问题和生物生命起源问题。迄今为止，还没有利用生命分子合成出能够自我繁殖的完全人工细胞，尽管目前各种团体正朝着这一目标努力，但它仍然在遥远的未来。
Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the [[RNA world hypothesis|conditions]] believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gilbert W |title=Origin of life: The RNA world|journal=Nature|date=20 February 1986 |volume=319 |issue=6055 |pages=618 |doi=10.1038/319618a0 |bibcode=1986Natur.319..618G |s2cid=8026658 }}</ref>
Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the [[RNA world hypothesis|conditions]] believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Gilbert W |title=Origin of life: The RNA world|journal=Nature|date=20 February 1986 |volume=319 |issue=6055 |pages=618 |doi=10.1038/319618a0 |bibcode=1986Natur.319..618G |s2cid=8026658 }}</ref>
Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the conditions believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for.
Another method proposed to create a protocell more closely resembles the conditions believed to have been present during evolution known as the primordial soup. Various RNA polymers could be encapsulated in vesicles and in such small boundary conditions, chemical reactions would be tested for.
另一种方法是，创造一个类似于人们认为在进化过程中存在的，称为原始汤的状态的原始细胞。各种RNA聚合物可以被包封在囊泡中，在如此小的边界条件下，将进行化学反应测试。
===Ethics and controversy===
===Ethics and controversy===
伦理和争议
Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including critics of the vague definition of "artificial life".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bedau M, Church G, Rasmussen S, Caplan A, Benner S, Fussenegger M, Collins J, Deamer D | display-authors = 6 | title = Life after the synthetic cell | journal = Nature | volume = 465 | issue = 7297 | pages = 422–424 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20495545 | doi = 10.1038/465422a | s2cid = 27471255 | bibcode = 2010Natur.465..422. }}</ref> The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern, although the most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication.<ref name='Beadau'/>
Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including critics of the vague definition of "artificial life".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bedau M, Church G, Rasmussen S, Caplan A, Benner S, Fussenegger M, Collins J, Deamer D | display-authors = 6 | title = Life after the synthetic cell | journal = Nature | volume = 465 | issue = 7297 | pages = 422–424 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20495545 | doi = 10.1038/465422a | s2cid = 27471255 | bibcode = 2010Natur.465..422. }}</ref> The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern, although the most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication.<ref name='Beadau'/>
Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including critics of the vague definition of "artificial life". The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern, although the most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication.
Protocell research has created controversy and opposing opinions, including critics of the vague definition of "artificial life". The creation of a basic unit of life is the most pressing ethical concern, although the most widespread worry about protocells is their potential threat to human health and the environment through uncontrolled replication.
原始细胞的研究引起了争议和反对意见，包括对”人工生命”模糊定义的批评。尽管对原细胞最普遍的担忧是它们通过不受控制的复制对人类健康和环境的潜在威胁，但创造一个基本的生命单位最紧迫的问题是伦理。
===International Research Community===
===International Research Community===
国际研究界
In the mid-2010s the research community started recognising the need to unify the field of synthetic cell research, acknowledging that the task of constructing an entire living organism from non-living components was beyond the resources of a single country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statnews.com/2017/07/28/cell-build-from-scratch/|title=From chemicals to life: Scientists try to build cells from scratch|access-date=4 Dec 2019}}</ref>
In the mid-2010s the research community started recognising the need to unify the field of synthetic cell research, acknowledging that the task of constructing an entire living organism from non-living components was beyond the resources of a single country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statnews.com/2017/07/28/cell-build-from-scratch/|title=From chemicals to life: Scientists try to build cells from scratch|access-date=4 Dec 2019}}</ref>
In the mid-2010s the research community started recognising the need to unify the field of synthetic cell research, acknowledging that the task of constructing an entire living organism from non-living components was beyond the resources of a single country.
In the mid-2010s the research community started recognising the need to unify the field of synthetic cell research, acknowledging that the task of constructing an entire living organism from non-living components was beyond the resources of a single country.
2010年代中期，研究界开始认识到有必要统一人工合成细胞的研究领域，承认从非生物成分构建一个完整生物体的任务超出了一个国家的资源范围。
In 2017 the international [[Build-a-Cell]] large-scale research collaboration for the construction of synthetic living cell was started,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buildacell.io/|title=Build-a-Cell|access-date=4 Dec 2019}}</ref> followed by national synthetic cell organizations in several countries. Those national organizations include FabriCell,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fabricell.org/|title=FabriCell|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> MaxSynBio<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.maxsynbio.mpg.de/home/|title=MaxSynBio - Max Planck Research Network in Synthetic Biology|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> and BaSyC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.basyc.nl/|title=BaSyC|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> The European synthetic cell efforts were unified in 2019 as SynCellEU initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syntheticcell.eu/|title=SynCell EU|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref>
In 2017 the international [[Build-a-Cell]] large-scale research collaboration for the construction of synthetic living cell was started,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buildacell.io/|title=Build-a-Cell|access-date=4 Dec 2019}}</ref> followed by national synthetic cell organizations in several countries. Those national organizations include FabriCell,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fabricell.org/|title=FabriCell|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> MaxSynBio<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.maxsynbio.mpg.de/home/|title=MaxSynBio - Max Planck Research Network in Synthetic Biology|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> and BaSyC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.basyc.nl/|title=BaSyC|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref> The European synthetic cell efforts were unified in 2019 as SynCellEU initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syntheticcell.eu/|title=SynCell EU|access-date=8 Dec 2019}}</ref>
In 2017 the international Build-a-Cell large-scale research collaboration for the construction of synthetic living cell was started, followed by national synthetic cell organizations in several countries. Those national organizations include FabriCell, MaxSynBio and BaSyC. The European synthetic cell efforts were unified in 2019 as SynCellEU initiative.
In 2017 the international Build-a-Cell large-scale research collaboration for the construction of synthetic living cell was started, followed by national synthetic cell organizations in several countries. Those national organizations include FabriCell, MaxSynBio and BaSyC. The European synthetic cell efforts were unified in 2019 as SynCellEU initiative.
2017年，国际上大规模的人工合成活细胞建设研究合作正式启动，随后若干国家也开展了国家间的合成细胞合作研究。这些全国性组织包括 FabriCell、 MaxSynBio 和 BaSyC。欧洲合成细胞的努力在2019年被统一为 SynCellEU 倡议。
==Top-down approach to create a minimal living cell==
==Top-down approach to create a minimal living cell==
Members from the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] have used a [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes.<ref name="gibson52"/> In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of ''[[Mycoplasma mycoides]]'' ([[Mycoplasma laboratorium]]) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium.<ref name="gibson52"/> It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.<ref name="Beadau">{{cite book| veditors = Beadau MA | title=The ethics of protocells moral and social implications of creating life in the laboratory| year=2009| publisher=MIT Press| location=Cambridge, Mass.| isbn=978-0-262-51269-5| edition=[Online-Ausg.] | vauthors = Parke EC }}</ref> The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Armstrong R | title = Designing with protocells: applications of a novel technical platform | journal = Life | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 457–490 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25370381 | pmc = 4206855 | doi = 10.3390/life4030457 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete [[in silico]] model for a living minimal organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Breuer M, Earnest TM, Merryman C, Wise KS, Sun L, Lynott MR, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Lapek JD, Gonzalez DJ, de Crécy-Lagard V, Haas D, Hanson AD, Labhsetwar P, Glass JI, Luthey-Schulten Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Essential metabolism for a minimal cell | journal = eLife | volume = 8 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30657448 | pmc = 6609329 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.36842 }}</ref>
自顶向下创建一个最小活细胞的方法
Members from the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] have used a [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes.<ref name="gibson52" /> In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of ''[[Mycoplasma mycoides]]'' ([[Mycoplasma laboratorium]]) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium.<ref name="gibson52" /> It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.<ref name="Beadau">{{cite book| veditors = Beadau MA | title=The ethics of protocells moral and social implications of creating life in the laboratory| year=2009| publisher=MIT Press| location=Cambridge, Mass.| isbn=978-0-262-51269-5| edition=[Online-Ausg.] | vauthors = Parke EC }}</ref> The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These [[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down]] approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Armstrong R | title = Designing with protocells: applications of a novel technical platform | journal = Life | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 457–490 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25370381 | pmc = 4206855 | doi = 10.3390/life4030457 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete [[in silico]] model for a living minimal organism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Breuer M, Earnest TM, Merryman C, Wise KS, Sun L, Lynott MR, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Lapek JD, Gonzalez DJ, de Crécy-Lagard V, Haas D, Hanson AD, Labhsetwar P, Glass JI, Luthey-Schulten Z | display-authors = 6 | title = Essential metabolism for a minimal cell | journal = eLife | volume = 8 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30657448 | pmc = 6609329 | doi = 10.7554/eLife.36842 }}</ref>
Members from the J. Craig Venter Institute have used a top-down computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes. In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of Mycoplasma mycoides (Mycoplasma laboratorium) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium. It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These top-down approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition. In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete in silico model for a living minimal organism.
Members from the J. Craig Venter Institute have used a top-down computational approach to knock out genes in a living organism to a minimum set of genes. In 2010, the team succeeded in creating a replicating strain of Mycoplasma mycoides (Mycoplasma laboratorium) using synthetically created DNA deemed to be the minimum requirement for life which was inserted into a genomically empty bacterium. It is hoped that the process of top-down biosynthesis will enable the insertion of new genes that would perform profitable functions such as generation of hydrogen for fuel or capturing excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The myriad regulatory, metabolic, and signaling networks are not completely characterized. These top-down approaches have limitations for the understanding of fundamental molecular regulation, since the host organisms have a complex and incompletely defined molecular composition. In 2019 a complete computational model of all pathways in Mycoplasma Syn3.0 cell was published, representing the first complete in silico model for a living minimal organism.