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Host–parasite coevolution is the coevolution of a host and a parasite. A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. cited in: The Red Queen Principle The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.

Host–parasite coevolution is the coevolution of a host and a parasite. A general characteristic of many viruses, as obligate parasites, is that they coevolved alongside their respective hosts. Correlated mutations between the two species enter them into an evolution arms race. Whichever organism, host or parasite, that cannot keep up with the other will be eliminated from their habitat, as the species with the higher average population fitness survives. This race is known as the Red Queen hypothesis. cited in: The Red Queen Principle The Red Queen hypothesis predicts that sexual reproduction allows a host to stay just ahead of its parasite, similar to the Red Queen's race in Through the Looking-Glass: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place". The host reproduces sexually, producing some offspring with immunity over its parasite, which then evolves in response.

宿主-寄生的共同演化是宿主和寄生者的共同演化。<ref name="Woolhouse">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1202-569 |last1=Woolhouse |first1=M. E. J. |last2=Webster |first2=J. P. |last3=Domingo |first3=E. |last4=Charlesworth|first4=B. |last5=Levin |first5=B. R. |title=Biological and biomedical implications of the coevolution of pathogens and their hosts |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |date=December 2002 |pmid=12457190 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |url=http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/689/2/Charlesworth_Woolhouse.pdf|hdl=1842/689 |s2cid=33145462 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>许多病毒作为专性寄生者的一个普遍特征是它们与各自宿主的共同演化。这两个物种之间的相关突变使它们进入了进化的军备竞赛。无论是哪种生物、宿主或寄生物，如果不能跟上其他生物的步伐，它们就会从它们的栖息地消失，而平均适合度较高的物种会幸存下来。这种竞争的假说被称为红皇后假说。<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Valen, L. |date=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}} cited in: [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REDQUEEN.html The Red Queen Principle]</ref>红皇后假说预测有性生殖可以让寄主在寄生者之前保持领先，就像''爱丽丝镜中奇遇''的红皇后比赛一样：“尽你所能跑而仍保持在同一个地方。”。<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Lewis |author-link=Lewis Carroll |orig-year=1871 |title=Through the Looking-glass: And what Alice Found There |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJJZAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Macmillan |date=1875 |page=42 |quote=it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place.}}</ref>宿主进行有性繁殖，产生一些对寄生虫具有免疫力的后代，然后进化为应对措施。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep10004 |last=Rabajante |first=J. |display-authors=etal |title=Red Queen dynamics in multi-host and multi-parasite interaction system |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2015 |volume=5 |pages=10004 |pmid=25899168 |pmc=4405699|bibcode=2015NatSR...510004R}}</ref>

宿主-寄生的共同演化是宿主和寄生者的共同演化。<ref name="Woolhouse">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1202-569 |last1=Woolhouse |first1=M. E. J. |last2=Webster |first2=J. P. |last3=Domingo |first3=E. |last4=Charlesworth|first4=B. |last5=Levin |first5=B. R. |title=Biological and biomedical implications of the coevolution of pathogens and their hosts |journal=[[Nature Genetics]] |date=December 2002 |pmid=12457190 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |url=http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/689/2/Charlesworth_Woolhouse.pdf|hdl=1842/689 |s2cid=33145462 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>许多病毒作为专性寄生者的一个普遍特征是它们与各自宿主的共同演化。这两个物种之间的相关突变使它们进入了进化的军备竞赛。无论是哪种生物、宿主或寄生物，如果不能跟上其他生物的步伐，它们就会从它们的栖息地消失，而平均适合度较高的物种会幸存下来。这种竞争的假说被称为红皇后假说。<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Valen, L. |date=1973 |title=A New Evolutionary Law |journal=Evolutionary Theory |volume=1 |pages=1–30}} cited in: [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REDQUEEN.html The Red Queen Principle]</ref>红皇后假说预测有性生殖可以让寄主在寄生者之前保持领先，就像''爱丽丝镜中奇遇''的红皇后比赛一样：“尽你所能跑而仍保持在同一个地方。”。<ref>{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Lewis |author-link=Lewis Carroll |orig-year=1871 |title=Through the Looking-glass: And what Alice Found There |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJJZAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Macmillan |date=1875 |page=42 |quote=it takes all the running ''you'' can do, to keep in the same place.}}</ref>宿主进行有性繁殖，产生一些对寄生物具有免疫力的后代，然后进化为应对措施。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/srep10004 |last=Rabajante |first=J. |display-authors=etal |title=Red Queen dynamics in multi-host and multi-parasite interaction system |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |year=2015 |volume=5 |pages=10004 |pmid=25899168 |pmc=4405699|bibcode=2015NatSR...510004R}}</ref>

The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite. Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.

The parasite–host relationship probably drove the prevalence of sexual reproduction over the more efficient asexual reproduction. It seems that when a parasite infects a host, sexual reproduction affords a better chance of developing resistance (through variation in the next generation), giving sexual reproduction variability for fitness not seen in the asexual reproduction, which produces another generation of the organism susceptible to infection by the same parasite. Coevolution between host and parasite may accordingly be responsible for much of the genetic diversity seen in normal populations, including blood-plasma polymorphism, protein polymorphism, and histocompatibility systems.

Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest.

Brood parasitism demonstrates close coevolution of host and parasite, for example in some cuckoos. These birds do not make their own nests, but lay their eggs in nests of other species, ejecting or killing the eggs and young of the host and thus having a strong negative impact on the host's reproductive fitness. Their eggs are camouflaged as eggs of their hosts, implying that hosts can distinguish their own eggs from those of intruders and are in an evolutionary arms race with the cuckoo between camouflage and recognition. Cuckoos are counter-adapted to host defences with features such as thickened eggshells, shorter incubation (so their young hatch first), and flat backs adapted to lift eggs out of the nest.

巢寄生证明了宿主和寄生者的密切共同演化，比如在一些杜鹃当中。这些鸟不自己筑巢，而是在其他物种的巢中产卵，排出或杀死寄主的卵和幼鸟，从而对寄主的生殖适应性产生严重的负面影响。它们的卵伪装成它们寄主的卵，这意味着寄主能够区分自己的卵和入侵者的卵，并且处于一种进化的军备竞赛中，杜鹃介于伪装和识别之间。杜鹃与寄主相反，具有加厚的蛋壳、较短的孵化期(所以它们的幼鸟先孵化)以及适于将蛋提出巢外的平背等特征。<ref name="Weiblen">{{cite web |last1=Weiblen |first1=George D. |title=Interspecific Coevolution |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/Weiblen2003.pdf |publisher=Macmillan |date=May 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rothstein |first1=S.I |year=1990 |title=A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=21 |pages=481–508 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.21.1.481}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Cuckoo : cheating by nature|last=Davies, N. B. (Nicholas B.), 1952-|others=McCallum, James (Wildlife artist)|date=7 April 2015|isbn=978-1-62040-952-7|edition=First U.S.|location=New York, NY|oclc=881092849}}</ref>

巢寄生证明了宿主和寄生者的密切共同演化，例如一些杜鹃。这些鸟不自己筑巢，而是在其他物种的巢中产卵，排除或杀死寄主的卵和幼鸟，从而对寄主的良性生殖产生严重的负面影响。它们的卵伪装成它们寄主的卵，这意味寄主是能够区分自己的卵和入侵者的卵的，并且与杜鹃处于一种伪装和识别之间进化的军备竞赛中。杜鹃与寄主相反，具有加厚的蛋壳、较短的孵化期（所以它们的幼鸟会先孵化）和适于将蛋提出巢外的平脊等特征。<ref name="Weiblen">{{cite web |last1=Weiblen |first1=George D. |title=Interspecific Coevolution |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/Weiblen2003.pdf |publisher=Macmillan |date=May 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rothstein |first1=S.I |year=1990 |title=A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=21 |pages=481–508 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.21.1.481}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Cuckoo : cheating by nature|last=Davies, N. B. (Nicholas B.), 1952-|others=McCallum, James (Wildlife artist)|date=7 April 2015|isbn=978-1-62040-952-7|edition=First U.S.|location=New York, NY|oclc=881092849}}</ref>

=== 拮抗性的共同演化 ===

=== 拮抗性的共同演化 ===

Predators and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes selective pressures. These often lead to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in anti-predator adaptations.

Predators and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes selective pressures. These often lead to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in anti-predator adaptations.

The same applies to [[herbivore]]s, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat.  [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Peter H. Raven]] in 1964 proposed the theory of [[escape and radiate coevolution]] to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref> In the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[red squirrel]]s and [[crossbill]]s (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the [[lodgepole pine]]. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore.<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref>

The same applies to [[herbivore]]s, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat.  [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Peter H. Raven]] in 1964 proposed the theory of [[escape and radiate coevolution]] to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref> In the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[red squirrel]]s and [[crossbill]]s (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the [[lodgepole pine]]. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore.<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref>