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第13行： + − − 还原论是一种有关现象之间的联系的哲学观点，认为现象可以用其他更简单或更基本的现象来描述<ref name="MerriamWebster" /> 。它是一种将一个复杂的系统解释为其各部分的总和的思想和哲学立场<ref name=":0" />。 第78行：
第77行： − + − − 还原论并没有排除所谓涌现现象的存在，但它确实暗示了完全理解这些现象的能力，从它们组成的过程来看。这种还原论的理解与本体论或强涌现论有很大的不同，本体论或强涌现论认为，在“涌现”中出现的东西不仅仅是它从本体论意义上或认识论意义上出现的过程的总和。然而，一些物理学家声称还原论和涌现论是互补的: 对自然过程的解释二者都是必需的。 − Token ontological reductionism is the idea that every item that exists is a sum item. For perceivable items, it affirms that every perceivable item is a sum of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Token ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is generally accepted.+ − − 表征本体论还原论是认为存在的每一项都是一个和项。它确信每个可感知的事物是复杂程度较低的事物的总和。将生物事物还原为化学事物的表征本体论已被普遍接受。 第92行：
第87行： − Type ontological reductionism is the idea that every type of item is a sum type of item, and that every perceivable type of item is a sum of types of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Type ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is often rejected. − − 类型本体论还原论的观点是，每一种类型的事物都是事物的总和，每一种可感知的事物类型都是复杂程度较低的事物类型的和。将生物事物还原为化学事物的类型本体论已被普遍摒弃。 − − Michael Ruse has criticized ontological reductionism as an improper argument against vitalism. − − 迈克尔 · 鲁斯（Michael Ruse）批评本体论的还原论是反对活力论的不恰当论据。 第118行：
第106行： − In science, reductionism implies that certain topics of study are based on areas that study smaller spatial scales or organizational units. While it is commonly accepted that the foundations of chemistry are based in physics, and molecular biology is based on chemistry, similar statements become controversial when one considers less rigorously defined intellectual pursuits. For example, claims that sociology is based on psychology, or that economics is based on sociology and psychology would be met with reservations. These claims are difficult to substantiate even though there are obvious associations between these topics (for instance, most would agree that psychology can affect and inform economics). The limit of reductionism's usefulness stems from emergent properties of complex systems, which are more common at certain levels of organization. For example, certain aspects of evolutionary psychology and sociobiology are rejected by some who claim that complex systems are inherently irreducible and that a holistic method is needed to understand them. − − 在科学中，还原论意味着某些研究主题是基于研究较小的空间尺度或组织单位的领域。虽然人们普遍认为化学的基础是物理学，而分子生物学的基础是化学，但是当人们考虑不那么严格定义的智力追求时，类似的陈述就会引起争议。例如，声称社会学是基于心理学的，或者经济学是基于社会学和心理学的，都是有保留意见的。尽管这些主题之间有明显的联系(例如，大多数人会同意心理学可以影响和告知经济学) ，但这些主张很难得到证实。还原论有用性的局限性源于复杂系统的突现性，这些突现性在组织的某些层次上更为普遍。例如，进化心理学和社会生物学的某些方面遭到一些人的否定，他们声称复杂的系统本质上是不可还原的，需要一种整体的方法来理解它们。 第133行：
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第228行： − A contrast to reductionism is holism or emergentism. Holism is the idea that, in the whole, items can have properties, known as emergent properties, that are not explainable from the sum of their parts. The principle of holism was summarized concisely by Aristotle in the Metaphysics: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts".+ − − 与还原论相对的是整体论或浮现论。整体论是这样一种观点，即整体上，项目可以具有一些属性，即所谓的涌现属性，这些属性不能用各个部分的和来解释。亚里士多德在《形而上学》一书中对整体主义原则进行了简明的概括: “整体大于各部分之和”。 − − − − − − 宗教还原论通常试图用非宗教的原因来解释宗教。关于宗教存在的还原论解释的几个例子是: 宗教可以归结为人类对是非的概念，宗教基本上是控制我们环境的原始尝试，宗教是解释物质世界存在的一种方式，宗教赋予一个群体成员更强的生存能力，自然选择也加强了这种能力。人类学家爱德华·伯内特·泰勒和詹姆斯·弗雷泽使用了一些宗教还原论的观点。 − − An alternative term for ontological reductionism is fragmentalism, often used in a pejorative sense. Anti-realists use the term fragmentalism in arguments that the world does not exist of separable entities, instead consisting of wholes. For example, advocates of this idea claim that:+ − 本体论还原论的另一个术语是碎片主义，通常用于贬义。反现实主义者在论证中使用“碎片主义”这个术语，认为世界不存在可分离的实体，而是由整体组成。例如，这种观点的支持者声称:+ − − − < 封锁报价 >+ − − − − The linear deterministic approach to nature and technology promoted a fragmented perception of reality, and a loss of the ability to foresee, to adequately evaluate, in all their complexity, global crises in ecology, civilization and education. − − 对自然和技术的线性决定论方法促进了对现实的支离破碎的认识，并使人们丧失了预见、充分评估全球生态、文明和教育危机的所有复杂性的能力。 − + − + − − The term fragmentalism is usually applied to reductionist modes of thought, often with the related pejorative term scientism. This usage is popular among some ecological activists: <blockquote>There is a need now to move away from scientism and the ideology of cause-and-effect determinism toward a radical empiricism, such as William James proposed, as an epistemology of science.</blockquote> These perspectives are not new; during the early 20th century, William James noted that rationalist science emphasized what he called fragmentation and disconnection. − − 碎片主义一词通常用于还原主义的思维模式，通常带有相关的贬义词科学主义。这种用法在一些生态活动家中很流行: 现在有必要摆脱科学主义和因果决定论的思想，转向彻底的经验主义，如威廉 · 詹姆斯提出的科学认识论。这些观点并不新鲜; 在20世纪早期，威廉 · 詹姆斯注意到理性主义科学强调他所谓的分裂和脱节。 第291行：
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第267行： − Alfred North Whitehead's metaphysics opposed reductionism. He refers to this as the "fallacy of the misplaced concreteness". His scheme was to frame a rational, general understanding of phenomena, derived from our reality. − − 阿尔弗雷德·诺思·怀特黑德的形而上学反对还原论。他称之为“错置具体性谬误”。他的计划是从我们的现实中建立对现象的理性的、普遍的理解。 第336行：
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在哲学中
'''Reductionism''' is any of several related [[Philosophy|philosophical]] ideas regarding the associations between [[Phenomenon|phenomena]], which can be described in terms of other simpler or more fundamental phenomena.<ref name=MerriamWebster /> It is also described as an intellectual and philosophical position that interprets a complex system as the sum of its parts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Kricheldorf|first=Hans R.|title=Getting It Right in Science and Medicine: Can Science Progress through Errors? Fallacies and Facts|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-30386-4|location=Cham|pages=63|language=en}}</ref>
'''Reductionism''' is any of several related [[Philosophy|philosophical]] ideas regarding the associations between [[Phenomenon|phenomena]], which can be described in terms of other simpler or more fundamental phenomena.<ref name=MerriamWebster /> It is also described as an intellectual and philosophical position that interprets a complex system as the sum of its parts.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Kricheldorf|first=Hans R.|title=Getting It Right in Science and Medicine: Can Science Progress through Errors? Fallacies and Facts|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-30386-4|location=Cham|pages=63|language=en}}</ref>
还原论是一种有关现象之间的联系的哲学观点，认为现象可以用其他更简单或更基本的现象来描述<ref name="MerriamWebster" /> 。它是一种将一个复杂的系统解释为其各部分的总和的思想和哲学立场<ref name=":0" />。
本体论还原论有两种形式: 表征本体论还原论和类型本体论还原论。
本体论还原论有两种形式: 表征本体论还原论和类型本体论还原论。
Reductionism does not preclude the existence of what might be termed [[Emergence|emergent phenomena]], but it does imply the ability to understand those phenomena completely in terms of the processes from which they are composed. This reductionist understanding is very different from ontological or strong [[emergentism]], which intends that what emerges in "emergence" is more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges, respectively either in the ontological sense or in the epistemological sense.<ref>Axelrod and Cohen "Harnessing Complexity"</ref> Some physicists, however, claim that reductionism and emergentism are complementary: both are needed to explain natural processes.<ref>Piers Coleman, Center for Materials Theory, Rutgers, Hubbard Theory Consortium and Physics Department, Royal Holloway, University of London; contribution to [https://www.d-iep.org/diep DIEP]-conference "Emergence at all lengthscales" 22-01-2019</ref>
Reductionism does not preclude the existence of what might be termed [[Emergence|emergent phenomena]], but it does imply the ability to understand those phenomena completely in terms of the processes from which they are composed. This reductionist understanding is very different from ontological or strong [[emergentism]], which intends that what emerges in "emergence" is more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges, respectively either in the ontological sense or in the epistemological sense.<ref name=":23">Axelrod and Cohen "Harnessing Complexity"</ref> Some physicists, however, claim that reductionism and emergentism are complementary: both are needed to explain natural processes.<ref name=":24">Piers Coleman, Center for Materials Theory, Rutgers, Hubbard Theory Consortium and Physics Department, Royal Holloway, University of London; contribution to [https://www.d-iep.org/diep DIEP]-conference "Emergence at all lengthscales" 22-01-2019</ref>
还原论并没有排除所谓涌现现象的存在，但它确实暗示了完全理解这些现象的能力，从它们组成的过程来看。这种还原论的理解与本体论或强涌现论有很大的不同，本体论或强涌现论认为，在“涌现”中出现的东西不仅仅是它从本体论意义上或认识论意义上出现的过程的总和<ref name=":23" /> 。然而，一些物理学家声称还原论和涌现论是互补的: 对自然过程的解释二者都是必需的<ref name=":24" />。
== 类型 ==
== 类型 ==
大多数哲学家将还原论和反还原论分为三种类型<ref name="Ruse" />。
大多数哲学家将还原论和反还原论分为三种类型<ref name="Ruse" />。
=== 本体论还原论 ===
=== 本体论还原论 ===
Ontological reductionism is the belief that reality is composed of a minimum number of kinds of entities or substances.<ref name=":0" /> This claim is usually [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], and is most commonly a form of [[monism]], in effect claiming that all objects, properties and events are reducible to a single substance. (A [[mind-body dualism|dualist]] who is an ontological reductionist would believe that everything is reducible to two substances—as one possible example, a dualist might claim that reality is composed of "[[matter]]" and "[[spirit]]".)
Ontological reductionism is the belief that reality is composed of a minimum number of kinds of entities or substances.<ref name=":0" /> This claim is usually [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], and is most commonly a form of [[monism]], in effect claiming that all objects, properties and events are reducible to a single substance. (A [[mind-body dualism|dualist]] who is an ontological reductionist would believe that everything is reducible to two substances—as one possible example, a dualist might claim that reality is composed of "[[matter]]" and "[[spirit]]".)
南希·墨菲（Nancey Murphy） 断言有两种本体论还原论: 一种声称整体不过是它们的部分；而另一种则是原子论还原论，认为整体不是“真实的真实（really real）”。她承认，“真实的真实（really real）”这个短语显然毫无意义，但她试图解释这两种还原论之间假定的差异<ref name=":4" />。
南希·墨菲（Nancey Murphy） 断言有两种本体论还原论: 一种声称整体不过是它们的部分；而另一种则是原子论还原论，认为整体不是“真实的真实（really real）”。她承认，“真实的真实（really real）”这个短语显然毫无意义，但她试图解释这两种还原论之间假定的差异<ref name=":4" />。
本体论还原论有两种形式: 表征本体论还原论和类型本体论还原论。
本体论还原论有两种形式: 表征本体论还原论和类型本体论还原论。
表征本体论还原论是认为存在的每一项都是一个和项。它确信每个可感知的事物是复杂程度较低的事物的总和。将生物事物还原为化学事物的表征本体论已被普遍接受。
表征本体论还原论是认为存在的每一项都是一个和项。它确信每个可感知的事物是复杂程度较低的事物的总和。将生物事物还原为化学事物的表征本体论已被普遍接受。
在科学中，还原论意味着某些研究主题是基于研究更小的空间尺度或组织单位的领域。虽然人们普遍认为化学的基础是基于物理，分子生物学是基于化学，但当一个人思考不那么严格定义的知识领域时，类似的陈述就会变得有争议。例如，人们对声称社会学是以心理学为基础，或者经济学是以社会学和心理学为基础的说法往往会持保留意见。尽管这些话题之间存在明显的联系（例如，大多数人会同意心理学可以影响并影响经济学），但这些说法很难得到证实。还原论效用的限制源于复杂系统的涌现特性，这种特性在组织的某些层次上更为常见。例如，一些人声称复杂的系统从本质上是不可简化的，需要一个整体的方法来理解它们，因而不同意进化心理学和社会生物学的某些观点。
在科学中，还原论意味着某些研究主题是基于研究更小的空间尺度或组织单位的领域。虽然人们普遍认为化学的基础是基于物理，分子生物学是基于化学，但当一个人思考不那么严格定义的知识领域时，类似的陈述就会变得有争议。例如，人们对声称社会学是以心理学为基础，或者经济学是以社会学和心理学为基础的说法往往会持保留意见。尽管这些话题之间存在明显的联系（例如，大多数人会同意心理学可以影响并影响经济学），但这些说法很难得到证实。还原论效用的限制源于复杂系统的涌现特性，这种特性在组织的某些层次上更为常见。例如，一些人声称复杂的系统从本质上是不可简化的，需要一个整体的方法来理解它们，因而不同意进化心理学和社会生物学的某些观点。
== 在宗教中 ==
== 在宗教中 ==
Religious reductionism generally attempts to explain religion by explaining it in terms of nonreligious causes. A few examples of reductionistic explanations for the presence of religion are: that religion can be reduced to humanity's conceptions of right and wrong, that religion is fundamentally a primitive attempt at controlling our environments, that religion is a way to explain the existence of a physical world, and that religion confers an enhanced survivability for members of a group and so is reinforced by [[natural selection]].<ref name=":25">{{cite web|url=http://evolution-of-religion.com/|title=Evolution-of-religion.com}}</ref> Anthropologists [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] and [[James George Frazer]] employed some [[Metatheories of religion in the social sciences#Edward Burnett Tylor and James George Frazer|religious reductionist arguments]].<ref name=":26">Strenski, Ivan. "Classic Twentieth-Century Theorist of the Study of Religion: Defending the Inner Sanctum of Religious Experience or Storming It." Pages 176–209 in ''Thinking About Religion: An Historical Introduction to Theories of Religion''. Malden: Blackwell, 2006.</ref>
Religious reductionism generally attempts to explain religion by explaining it in terms of nonreligious causes. A few examples of reductionistic explanations for the presence of religion are: that religion can be reduced to humanity's conceptions of right and wrong, that religion is fundamentally a primitive attempt at controlling our environments, that religion is a way to explain the existence of a physical world, and that religion confers an enhanced survivability for members of a group and so is reinforced by [[natural selection]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://evolution-of-religion.com/|title=Evolution-of-religion.com}}</ref> Anthropologists [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] and [[James George Frazer]] employed some [[Metatheories of religion in the social sciences#Edward Burnett Tylor and James George Frazer|religious reductionist arguments]].<ref>Strenski, Ivan. "Classic Twentieth-Century Theorist of the Study of Religion: Defending the Inner Sanctum of Religious Experience or Storming It." Pages 176–209 in ''Thinking About Religion: An Historical Introduction to Theories of Religion''. Malden: Blackwell, 2006.</ref>
宗教还原论通常试图用非宗教的原因来解释宗教。关于宗教存在的还原论解释的几个例子是：宗教可以被还原为人类是或非的概念，从根本上说，宗教是控制环境的一种原始尝试，宗教是解释物质世界存在的一种方式，宗教赋予一个群体成员更强的生存能力，自然选择也加强了这种能力<ref name=":25" />。人类学家爱德华·伯内特·泰勒（Edward Burnett tyler）和詹姆斯·弗雷泽（James George fraser）就采用了一些宗教还原论的观点<ref name=":26" />。
== 在语言学中 ==
== In linguistics ==
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
Linguistic reductionism is the idea that everything can be described or explained by a language with a limited number of concepts, and combinations of those concepts.<ref name=":27">{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_reductionism.html|title=Reductionism – By Branch / Doctrine – The Basics of Philosophy|website=www.philosophybasics.com}}</ref> An example is the language [[Toki Pona]].
Linguistic reductionism is the idea that everything can be described or explained by a language with a limited number of concepts, and combinations of those concepts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_reductionism.html|title=Reductionism – By Branch / Doctrine – The Basics of Philosophy|website=www.philosophybasics.com}}</ref> An example is the language [[Toki Pona]].
语言还原论的观点是，任何事物都可以只用有限数量的概念，以及这些概念的组合来描述或解释<ref name=":27" /> 。一个例子就是道本语。
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
== In philosophy ==
== 在哲学中 ==
The concept of [[downward causation]] poses an alternative to reductionism within philosophy. This opinion is developed by [[Peter Bøgh Andersen]], [[Claus Emmeche]], [[Niels Ole Finnemann]], and [[Peder Voetmann Christiansen]], among others. These philosophers explore ways in which one can talk about phenomena at a larger-scale level of organization exerting causal influence on a smaller-scale level, and find that some, but not all proposed types of downward causation are compatible with science. In particular, they find that constraint is one way in which downward causation can operate.<ref>P.B. Andersen, C. Emmeche, N.O. Finnemann, P.V. Christiansen, ''Downward Causation: Minds, Bodies and Matter'', Aarhus University Press ({{ISBN|87-7288-814-8}}) (2001)</ref> The notion of causality as constraint has also been explored as a way to shed light on scientific concepts such as [[self-organization]], [[natural selection]], [[adaptation]], and control.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Einmag_Abstr/AJuarrero.html |first1=A |last1=Juarrero |title=Causality as Constraint |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612013407/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Einmag_Abstr/AJuarrero.html |archive-date=June 12, 2011 }}</ref>
The concept of [[downward causation]] poses an alternative to reductionism within philosophy. This opinion is developed by [[Peter Bøgh Andersen]], [[Claus Emmeche]], [[Niels Ole Finnemann]], and [[Peder Voetmann Christiansen]], among others. These philosophers explore ways in which one can talk about phenomena at a larger-scale level of organization exerting causal influence on a smaller-scale level, and find that some, but not all proposed types of downward causation are compatible with science. In particular, they find that constraint is one way in which downward causation can operate.<ref>P.B. Andersen, C. Emmeche, N.O. Finnemann, P.V. Christiansen, ''Downward Causation: Minds, Bodies and Matter'', Aarhus University Press ({{ISBN|87-7288-814-8}}) (2001)</ref> The notion of causality as constraint has also been explored as a way to shed light on scientific concepts such as [[self-organization]], [[natural selection]], [[adaptation]], and control.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Einmag_Abstr/AJuarrero.html |first1=A |last1=Juarrero |title=Causality as Constraint |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612013407/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Einmag_Abstr/AJuarrero.html |archive-date=June 12, 2011 }}</ref>
向下因果关系的概念在哲学中提出了一种还原论的替代方法。这个观点是由 Peter b ø gh Andersen，Claus Emmeche，Niels Ole Finnemann，和 Peder Voetmann Christiansen 等人提出的。这些哲学家探索的方式，其中一个可以谈论的现象，在较大规模的组织水平产生因果影响的较小规模的水平，并发现，一些，但不是所有类型的向下因果关系是与科学兼容的。特别是，他们发现，约束是向下因果关系可以运作的一种方式。因果关系作为约束的概念也被探索作为一种阐明科学概念的方式，例如自我组织、自然选择、适应和控制。
向下因果关系的概念在哲学中提出了一种还原论的替代方法。这个观点是由 Peter b ø gh Andersen，Claus Emmeche，Niels Ole Finnemann，和 Peder Voetmann Christiansen 等人提出的。这些哲学家探索的方式，其中一个可以谈论的现象，在较大规模的组织水平产生因果影响的较小规模的水平，并发现，一些，但不是所有类型的向下因果关系是与科学兼容的。特别是，他们发现，约束是向下因果关系可以运作的一种方式。因果关系作为约束的概念也被探索作为一种阐明科学概念的方式，例如自我组织、自然选择、适应和控制。
=== Free will ===
=== 自由意志 ===
{{Main|Free will}}
{{Main|Free will}}
启蒙运动时期的哲学家致力于将人类的自由意志与还原论隔离开来。笛卡尔将机械必然性的物质世界与精神自由意志的世界分开。德国哲学家引入了“本体”领域的概念，这一领域不受“现象”自然界的决定论法则的支配，在这一领域中，每一个事件都完全由一系列因果关系所决定。最有影响力的公式是伊曼努尔 · 康德提出的，他区分了心智强加于世界的因果决定论框架ーー现象领域ーー和现象领域本身存在的世界ーー本体领域，正如他所相信的，这个领域包括自由意志。为了将神学与还原论隔离开来，19世纪后启蒙时代的德国神学家，尤其是弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫和阿尔布雷赫特·立敕尔，使用了浪漫主义的方法，将宗教建立在人类精神的基础之上，因此，一个人对精神事物的感觉或情感构成了宗教。
启蒙运动时期的哲学家致力于将人类的自由意志与还原论隔离开来。笛卡尔将机械必然性的物质世界与精神自由意志的世界分开。德国哲学家引入了“本体”领域的概念，这一领域不受“现象”自然界的决定论法则的支配，在这一领域中，每一个事件都完全由一系列因果关系所决定。最有影响力的公式是伊曼努尔 · 康德提出的，他区分了心智强加于世界的因果决定论框架ーー现象领域ーー和现象领域本身存在的世界ーー本体领域，正如他所相信的，这个领域包括自由意志。为了将神学与还原论隔离开来，19世纪后启蒙时代的德国神学家，尤其是弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫和阿尔布雷赫特·立敕尔，使用了浪漫主义的方法，将宗教建立在人类精神的基础之上，因此，一个人对精神事物的感觉或情感构成了宗教。
=== Causation ===
=== 因果关系 ===
Most common philosophical understandings of [[Causality|causation]] involve reducing it to some collection of non-causal facts. Opponents of these reductionist views have given arguments that the non-causal facts in question are insufficient to determine the causal facts.<ref name="Carroll">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Causation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGnZtUtG-nIC&pg=PA292 |page=292 |author=John W Carroll |chapter=Chapter 13: Anti-reductionism |isbn=978-0-19-927973-9 |publisher=Oxford Handbooks Online |year=2009 |editor1=Helen Beebee |editor2=Christopher Hitchcock |editor3=Peter Menzies }}</ref>
Most common philosophical understandings of [[Causality|causation]] involve reducing it to some collection of non-causal facts. Opponents of these reductionist views have given arguments that the non-causal facts in question are insufficient to determine the causal facts.<ref name="Carroll">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Causation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGnZtUtG-nIC&pg=PA292 |page=292 |author=John W Carroll |chapter=Chapter 13: Anti-reductionism |isbn=978-0-19-927973-9 |publisher=Oxford Handbooks Online |year=2009 |editor1=Helen Beebee |editor2=Christopher Hitchcock |editor3=Peter Menzies }}</ref>
A contrast to reductionism is [[holism]] or [[emergentism]]. Holism is the idea that, in the whole, items can have properties, known as ''emergent properties'', that are not explainable from the sum of their parts. The principle of holism was summarized concisely by [[Aristotle]] in the [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts".
A contrast to reductionism is [[holism]] or [[emergentism]]. Holism is the idea that, in the whole, items can have properties, known as ''emergent properties'', that are not explainable from the sum of their parts. The principle of holism was summarized concisely by [[Aristotle]] in the [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts".
与还原论相对的是整体论或浮现论。整体论是这样一种观点，即整体上，项目可以具有一些属性，即所谓的涌现属性，这些属性不能用各个部分的和来解释。亚里士多德在《形而上学》一书中对整体主义原则进行了简明的概括: “整体大于各部分之和”。
=== Fragmentalism ===
=== Fragmentalism ===
The linear deterministic approach to nature and technology promoted a fragmented perception of reality, and a loss of the ability to foresee, to adequately evaluate, in all their complexity, global crises in ecology, civilization and education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~isre/NEWSLETTER/vol6no2/global.htm|title=Global education as a trend reflecting the problems of today and meeting the requirements of tomorrow|website=Indiana University Bloomington|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991003182135/http://www.indiana.edu/~isre/NEWSLETTER/vol6no2/global.htm|archive-date=3 October 1999|author=Anatoly P. Liferov}}</ref>
The linear deterministic approach to nature and technology promoted a fragmented perception of reality, and a loss of the ability to foresee, to adequately evaluate, in all their complexity, global crises in ecology, civilization and education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~isre/NEWSLETTER/vol6no2/global.htm|title=Global education as a trend reflecting the problems of today and meeting the requirements of tomorrow|website=Indiana University Bloomington|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991003182135/http://www.indiana.edu/~isre/NEWSLETTER/vol6no2/global.htm|archive-date=3 October 1999|author=Anatoly P. Liferov}}</ref>
对自然和技术的线性决定论方法促进了对现实的支离破碎的认识，并使人们丧失了预见、充分评估全球生态、文明和教育危机的所有复杂性的能力。
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The term ''fragmentalism'' is usually applied to reductionist modes of thought, often with the related pejorative term ''[[scientism]]''. This usage is popular among some ecological activists: <blockquote>There is a need now to move away from [[scientism]] and the ideology of cause-and-effect determinism toward a radical [[empiricism]], such as [[William James]] proposed, as an [[epistemology]] of science.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bioregionalanimism.blogspot.com/|title=Redirecting|website=bioregionalanimism.blogspot.com}}</ref></blockquote> These perspectives are not new; during the early 20th century, [[William James]] noted that rationalist science emphasized what he called fragmentation and disconnection.<ref name=Lumpkin />
The term ''fragmentalism'' is usually applied to reductionist modes of thought, often with the related pejorative term ''[[scientism]]''. This usage is popular among some ecological activists: <blockquote>There is a need now to move away from [[scientism]] and the ideology of cause-and-effect determinism toward a radical [[empiricism]], such as [[William James]] proposed, as an [[epistemology]] of science.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bioregionalanimism.blogspot.com/|title=Redirecting|website=bioregionalanimism.blogspot.com}}</ref></blockquote> These perspectives are not new; during the early 20th century, [[William James]] noted that rationalist science emphasized what he called fragmentation and disconnection.<ref name=Lumpkin />
碎片主义一词通常用于还原主义的思维模式，通常带有相关的贬义词科学主义。这种用法在一些生态活动家中很流行: 现在有必要摆脱科学主义和因果决定论的思想，转向彻底的经验主义，如威廉 · 詹姆斯提出的科学认识论。这些观点并不新鲜; 在20世纪早期，威廉 · 詹姆斯注意到理性主义科学强调他所谓的分裂和脱节。
Such opinions also motivate many criticisms of the scientific method:
Such opinions also motivate many criticisms of the scientific method:
[[Alfred North Whitehead]]'s metaphysics opposed reductionism. He refers to this as the "fallacy of the misplaced concreteness". His scheme was to frame a rational, general understanding of phenomena, derived from our reality.
[[Alfred North Whitehead]]'s metaphysics opposed reductionism. He refers to this as the "fallacy of the misplaced concreteness". His scheme was to frame a rational, general understanding of phenomena, derived from our reality.
阿尔弗雷德·诺思·怀特黑德的形而上学反对还原论。他称之为“错置具体性谬误”。他的计划是从我们的现实中建立对现象的理性的、普遍的理解。
[[Ecologist]] [[Sven Erik Jorgensen]] makes both theoretical and practical arguments for a [[holistic]] method in certain topics of science, especially [[ecology]]. He argues that many systems are so complex that they can ever be described in complete detail. In analogy to the Heisenberg [[uncertainty principle]] in physics, he argues that many interesting ecological phenomena cannot be replicated in laboratory conditions, and so cannot be measured or observed without changing the system in some way. He also indicates the importance of inter-connectedness in biological systems. He believes that science can only progress by outlining questions that are unanswerable and by using models that do not try to explain everything in terms of smaller hierarchical levels of organization, but instead model them on the scale of the system itself, taking into account some (but not all) factors from levels higher and lower in the hierarchy.<ref>S. E. Jørgensen, ''Integration of Ecosystem Theories: A Pattern'', 3rd ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, ({{ISBN|1-4020-0651-9}}) (2002) Chapters 1 & 2.</ref>
[[Ecologist]] [[Sven Erik Jorgensen]] makes both theoretical and practical arguments for a [[holistic]] method in certain topics of science, especially [[ecology]]. He argues that many systems are so complex that they can ever be described in complete detail. In analogy to the Heisenberg [[uncertainty principle]] in physics, he argues that many interesting ecological phenomena cannot be replicated in laboratory conditions, and so cannot be measured or observed without changing the system in some way. He also indicates the importance of inter-connectedness in biological systems. He believes that science can only progress by outlining questions that are unanswerable and by using models that do not try to explain everything in terms of smaller hierarchical levels of organization, but instead model them on the scale of the system itself, taking into account some (but not all) factors from levels higher and lower in the hierarchy.<ref>S. E. Jørgensen, ''Integration of Ecosystem Theories: A Pattern'', 3rd ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, ({{ISBN|1-4020-0651-9}}) (2002) Chapters 1 & 2.</ref>