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第88行： − s and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes s. These often lead to an between prey and predator, resulting in s.+ − − − − The same applies to [[herbivore]]s, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Peter H. Raven]] in 1964 proposed the theory of [[escape and radiate coevolution]] to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies. In the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[red squirrel]]s and [[crossbill]]s (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the [[lodgepole pine]]. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore. − 这同样适用于草食动物、植食动物，以及它们吃的植物。1964年，保罗·R·欧里希和彼得·R·瑞文提出了逃逸和辐射的共同演化理论来描述植物和蝴蝶的进化多样性。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref>在落基山脉，红松鼠和斑鸠（食种子的鸟）争夺海滩松的种子。松鼠通过啃咬松果鳞片来获取松子，而斑鸠则通过它们不寻常的交叉下颚来获取松子。在有松鼠的地方，海滩松的球果更重、种子更少、鳞片更薄，这使得松鼠更加难以获取种子。相反，如果有斑鸠而没有松鼠，球果的结构会较轻，但有较厚的鳞片，从而就导致交喙更难获取种子。海滩上的锥形细胞与这两种食草动物进行着一场进化中的军备竞赛，在接下来的两个段落中也是这样。<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref>+ 第100行：
第97行： − Both [[intraspecific competition]], with features such as [[sexual conflict]] and [[sexual selection]], and [[interspecific competition]], such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution.+ − − 无论是具有如性冲突<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1785 |title=Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: An overview |year=2006 |last1=Parker |first1=G. A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=361 |issue=1466 |pages=235–59 |pmid=16612884 |pmc=1569603}}</ref>和性选择<ref name="UCL">{{cite web|title=Biol 2007 - Coevolution|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html|publisher=[[University College, London]]|access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref>等特征的种内竞争，还是具有如食肉动物之间的种间竞争，都可能推动共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |s2cid=5576868 |title=Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past |journal=Oikos |date=October 1980 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.2307/3544421 |jstor=3544421}}</ref> 第114行：
第109行： − The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution was developed by [[John N. Thompson]] as a way of linking the ecological and evolutionary processes that shape interactions among species across ecosystems. It is based on three observations that are taken as assumptions: (1) species are usually groups of populations that are somewhat genetically distinct from each other, (2) interacting species often co-occur in only parts of their geographic ranges, and (3) interactions among species differ ecologically among environments.+ − − 共同演化的地理镶嵌理论是由约翰·N·汤普森发展起来的，作为一种连接塑造生态系统中物种间互动的生态和进化过程的方式。它基于三个观察所得的假设：（1）这些物种通常是在基因上各所不同的种群，（2）互动的物种经常只是共同出现在它们地理范围的部分，以及（3）种间的互动在生态上发生分歧于环境的不同。 − − From these assumptions, geographic mosaic theory suggests that natural selection on interactions among species is driven by three sources of variation: − − 1. ''Geographic selection mosaics'' occur in interactions among species, because genes are expressed in different ways in different environments and because different genes are favored in different environments. For example, natural selection on an interaction between a parasite population and a host population may differ between very dry environments and very wet environments. Alternatively, an interaction between two or more species may be antagonistic in some environments but mutualistic (beneficial to both or all species) in other environments. − − 2. ''Coevolutionary hotspots and coldspots'' occur because natural selection on interactions among species is reciprocal in some environments but not in others. For example, a symbiont population may decrease the survival or reproduction of its hosts in one environment, but it may have no effect on host survival or reproduction in another environment. When detrimental, natural selection will favor evolutionary responses in the host population, resulting in a coevolutionary hotspot of ongoing reciprocal evolutionary changes in the parasite and host populations. When the symbiont has no effect on the survival and reproduction of the host, natural selection on the symbiont population will not favor an evolutionary response by the host population (i.e, a coevolutionary coldspot). − − 3. Finally, there is constant ''remixing of the traits'' on which natural selection acts both locally and regionally. At any moment in time, a local population will have a unique combination of genes on which natural selection acts. These genetic differences among populations occur because each local population has a unique history of new mutations, genomic alterations (e.g., whole genome duplications), gene flow among populations from individuals arriving from other populations or going to other populations, random loss or fixation of genes at times when populations are small (random genetic drift), hybridization with other species, and other genetic and ecological processes that affect the raw genetic material on which natural selection acts. More formally, then, the geographic mosaic of coevolution can be viewed as a genotype by genotype by environment interaction (GxGxE) that results in the relentless evolution of interacting species. − − Geographic mosaic theory has been explored through a wide range of mathematical models, studies of interacting species in nature, and laboratory experiments using microbial species and viruses. − Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by analogy. − 第146行：
第127行： − Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating [[artificial life]] as well as for optimization, game learning and [[machine learning]]. [[Daniel Hillis]] added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at local maxima. [[Karl Sims]] coevolved virtual creatures.+ − − 协同演化性的算法已经应用于生成人工生命；以及优化、博弈学习和机器学习等方面。<ref>Potter M. and K. De Jong, Evolving Complex Structures via Cooperative Coevolution, Fourth Annual Conference on Evolutionary Programming, San Diego, CA, 1995.</ref><ref>Potter M., The Design and Computational Model of Cooperative Coevolution, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Potter|first1=Mitchell A.|last2=De Jong|first2=Kenneth A.|title=Cooperative Coevolution: An Architecture for Evolving Coadapted Subcomponents|journal=Evolutionary Computation|date=2000|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–29|doi=10.1162/106365600568086|pmid=10753229|citeseerx=10.1.1.134.2926|s2cid=10265380}}</ref><ref>Weigand P., Liles W., De Jong K., An empirical analysis of collaboration methods in cooperative coevolutionary algorithms. Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO) 2001.</ref><ref>Weigand P., An Analysis of Cooperative Coevolutionary Algorithms, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 2003.</ref>丹尼尔希尔斯引进“共同进化寄生虫”防止优化过程陷入局部极大值。<ref>{{citation |author=Hillis, W.D. |year=1990 |title=Co-evolving parasites improve simulated evolution as an optimization procedure |journal=Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena |volume=42 |issue=1–3 |pages=228–234 |doi=10.1016/0167-2789(90)90076-2|bibcode=1990PhyD...42..228H}}</ref>卡尔西姆斯将这一概念用至了虚拟生物上面。<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sims |first1=Karl |title=Evolved Virtual Creatures |url=http://www.karlsims.com/evolved-virtual-creatures.html|publisher=Karl Sims|access-date=17 January 2017|date=1994}}</ref> − The concept of coevolution was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist [[Henrik Valeur]] as an antithesis to "star-architecture". As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion.+ − − 共同进化的概念被丹麦建筑师兼城市规划专家亨利克 · 瓦勒尔在建筑学引入，作为“星架构”<ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrikvaleur.dk/biography/ |title=Henrik Valeur's biography |access-date=2015-08-29}}</ref>的对立面。作为2006年威尼斯建筑双年展丹麦馆的馆长，他创建了一个关于中国城市发展共同进化的展览项目，并获得了最佳国家馆的金狮奖。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |title=About Co-evolution |publisher=Danish Architecture Centre |access-date=2015-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120011414/http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |archive-date=2015-11-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://movingcities.org/interviews/henrik-valeur_domuschina/ |title= An interview with Henrik Valeur |publisher=Movingcities |access-date=2015-10-17 |date=2007-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=Co-evolution: Danish/Chinese Collaboration on Sustainable Urban Development in China|publisher=Danish Architecture Centre|year= 2006|location= Copenhagen |isbn=978-87-90668-61-7 |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=India: the Urban Transition - a Case Study of Development Urbanism |publisher=Architectural Publisher B |year=2014 |isbn=978-87-92700-09-4 |title-link=India: the Urban Transition |page=22}}</ref> − At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, [[Newcastle University]], a coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers."+ − − 在纽卡斯尔大学的建筑、规划和景观学院，共同进化方法的建筑学被定义为让学生、志愿者和当地社区的成员参与实际的、实验性的工作的一种设计实践，旨在“建立用户和设计师之间的动态学习过程”。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Farmer |first=Graham |year=2017 |title=From Differentiation to Concretisation: Integrative Experiments in Sustainable Architecture |journal=Societies |volume=3 |issue=35 |page=18 |doi=10.3390/soc7040035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> − In his book ''The Self-organizing Universe'', [[Erich Jantsch]] attributed the entire evolution of the [[cosmos]] to coevolution.+ − − 在''自组织的宇宙''一书中，埃里希·詹茨把整个宇宙的演化归因于共同进化。 − − In [[astronomy]], an emerging theory proposes that [[black hole]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]] develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution. − 在天文学中，一个新兴的理论提出黑洞和星系以一种相互依存的方式生存，类似于生物的共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gnedin |first=Oleg Y. |display-authors=etal|title=Co-Evolution of Galactic Nuclei and Globular Cluster Systems |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=785 |issue=1 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/785/1/71 |bibcode=2014ApJ...785...71G |pages=71|arxiv=1308.0021|year=2014 |s2cid=118660328 }}</ref>+ − Since year 2000, a growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing. − − In ''Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future'' (1994) [[Richard Norgaard]] proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other. In ''Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment'' (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship".+ − − − + − − 计算机软件和硬件可以被看作是两个独立而本质联系的成分。类似地，操作系统和计算机应用程序、网络浏览器和网络应用程序也是这样。 − − All of these systems depend upon each other and advance step by step through a kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside. The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in [[sociotechnical system]]s analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and a "social system" of relationships and procedures through which the technology is tied into the goals of the system and all the other human and organizational relationships within and outside the system. Such systems work best when the technical and social systems are deliberately developed together. − − 所有这些系统相互依存，通过一种演进过程一步一步前进。硬件、操作系统或网页浏览器的改变可能会引入新的功能，然后将这些功能合并到相应的应用程序中。<ref>Theo D'Hondt, Kris De Volder, Kim Mens and Roel Wuyts, Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation, TheKluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science, 2002, Volume 648, Part 2, 207–224 {{doi|10.1007/978-1-4615-0883-0_7}}</ref>这个想法与社会技术系统分析和设计中的“联合优化”概念密切相关，在这个概念中，一个系统被理解为既包括用于生产和维护的工具和硬件的“技术系统”，也包括一个关系和程序的“社会系统”，通过这个系统，系统的目标以及系统内外的所有其他人和组织关系同技术联系在一起；当技术系统和社会系统被有意地共同发展时，这种系统工作得最好。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cherns |first1=A. |year=1976 |title=The principles of sociotechnical design |journal=Human Relations |volume=29 |issue=8 |page=8 |doi=10.1177/001872677602900806|doi-access=free }}</ref> − − ==See also== − *[[Bak–Sneppen model]] − *[[Coextinction]] − *[[Ecological fitting]] − *[[Escape and radiate coevolution]] − *[[Genomics of domestication]] − *Bak–Sneppen model+ − *Coextinction − *Ecological fitting − *Escape and radiate coevolution − *Genomics of domestication − + 第215行：
第165行： − ==External links==+ − *, video of lecture by [[Stephen C. Stearns]] ([[Open Yale Courses]])+ − − *Coevolution, video of lecture by Stephen C. Stearns (Open Yale Courses) − − −
无编辑摘要
[[File:Dasyscolia ciliata.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|授粉的黄蜂 ''Dasyscolia ciliata'' 在与''Ophrys speculum''花进行拟交配<ref name=Pijl/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg]]
[[File:Dasyscolia ciliata.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|授粉的黄蜂 ''Dasyscolia ciliata'' 在与''Ophrys speculum''花进行拟交配<ref name=Pijl/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Dasyscolia_ciliata.jpg]]
{{Evolutionary biology}}
{{Evolutionary biology}}
在生物学中，当两个或多个物种通过自然选择过程相互影响彼此各自的演化时，就会发生'''共同演化'''。该词语有时用在同一物种中存在相互影响和演化的两个特征上，例如基因和文化的共同演化。
在生物学中，当两个或多个物种通过自然选择过程相互影响彼此各自的演化时，就会发生'''共同演化'''。该词语有时用在同一物种中存在相互影响和演化的两个特征上，例如基因和文化的共同演化。
{{Main|Predation}}
{{Main|Predation}}
[[Predator|捕食者]]和猎物互动并共同演化：捕食者去更有效地捕捉猎物，猎物去逃离追捕。两者的共同演化相互施加这一[[selective pressure|选择压]]。这往往导致猎物和捕食者之间的[[evolutionary arms race|进化军备竞赛]]，并导致[[anti-predator adaptation|反捕食者适应]]。
[[Predator|捕食者]]和猎物互动并共同演化：捕食者去更有效地捕捉猎物，猎物去逃离追捕。两者的共同演化相互施加这一[[selective pressure|选择压]]。这往往导致猎物和捕食者之间的[[evolutionary arms race|进化军备竞赛]]，并导致[[anti-predator adaptation|反捕食者适应]]。<ref>{{cite web|title=Predator-Prey Relationships|url=https://necsi.edu/predator-prey-relationships|publisher=New England Complex Systems Institute|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref>
这同样适用于[[herbivore|草食动物]]、植食动物，以及它们吃的植物。1964年，[[Paul R. Ehrlich|保罗·R·欧里希]]和[[Peter H. Raven|彼得·R·瑞文]]提出了[[escape and radiate coevolution|逃逸和辐射的共同演化]]理论来描述植物和蝴蝶的进化多样性。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref>在[[Rocky Mountains|落基山脉]]，[[red squirrel|红松鼠]]和[[crossbill|斑鸠]]（食种子的鸟）争夺[[lodgepole pine|海滩松]]的种子。松鼠通过啃咬松果鳞片来获取松子，而斑鸠则通过它们不寻常的交叉下颚来获取松子。在有松鼠的地方，海滩松的球果更重、种子更少、鳞片更薄，这使得松鼠更加难以获取种子。相反，如果有斑鸠而没有松鼠，球果的结构会较轻，但有较厚的鳞片，从而就导致交喙更难获取种子。海滩上的锥形细胞与这两种食草动物进行着一场进化中的军备竞赛，在接下来的两个段落中也是这样。<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref>
[[File:Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[性冲突]]已经在''[[Drosophila melanogaster|黑腹果蝇]]''（shown mating, male on right）的案例当中被研究|链接=Special:FilePath/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg]]
[[File:Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[性冲突]]已经在''[[Drosophila melanogaster|黑腹果蝇]]''（shown mating, male on right）的案例当中被研究|链接=Special:FilePath/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg]]
{{Main|Intraspecific competition|Interspecific competition}}
{{Main|Intraspecific competition|Interspecific competition}}
无论是具有如[[sexual conflict|性冲突]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1785 |title=Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: An overview |year=2006 |last1=Parker |first1=G. A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=361 |issue=1466 |pages=235–59 |pmid=16612884 |pmc=1569603}}</ref>和[[sexual selection|性选择]]<ref name="UCL">{{cite web|title=Biol 2007 - Coevolution|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html|publisher=[[University College, London]]|access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref>等特征的[[intraspecific competition|种内竞争]]，还是具有如食肉动物之间的[[interspecific competition|种间竞争]]，都可能推动共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |s2cid=5576868 |title=Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past |journal=Oikos |date=October 1980 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.2307/3544421 |jstor=3544421}}</ref>
== 多物种 ==
== 多物种 ==
{{main|Mosaic coevolution}}
{{main|Mosaic coevolution}}
共同演化的地理镶嵌理论是由[[John N. Thompson|约翰·N·汤普森]]发展起来的，作为一种连接塑造生态系统中物种间互动的生态和进化过程的方式。它基于三个观察所得的假设：（1）这些物种通常是在基因上各所不同的种群，（2）互动的物种经常只是共同出现在它们地理范围的部分，以及（3）种间的互动在生态上发生分歧于环境的不同。
根据这些假设的地理镶嵌理论表明物种间相互作用的自然选择由三个变异来源驱动：
根据这些假设的地理镶嵌理论表明物种间相互作用的自然选择由三个变异来源驱动：
# ''地理选择镶嵌''发生在物种的相互作用之间；因为基因在不同的环境中以不同的方式表达，而且不同的基因会在不同的环境中各受欢迎。例如，寄生虫种群和宿主种群之间相互作用的自然选择在非常干燥的环境和非常湿润的环境之间可能有所不同。或者，两个或两个以上物种之间的相互作用在某些环境中可能是对抗性的，但在其他环境中是互惠性的(对两个或所有物种都有益)。
# ''地理选择镶嵌''发生在物种的相互作用之间；因为基因在不同的环境中以不同的方式表达，而且不同的基因会在不同的环境中各受欢迎。例如，寄生虫种群和宿主种群之间相互作用的自然选择在非常干燥的环境和非常湿润的环境之间可能有所不同。或者，两个或两个以上物种之间的相互作用在某些环境中可能是对抗性的，但在其他环境中是互惠性的(对两个或所有物种都有益)。
2. ''共同演化的热点和冷点''的出现是因为物种间相互作用的自然选择在某些环境中是相互的，而在其他环境中则不然。例如，一个共生的生物种群可能会损害其宿主在一个环境中的生存或繁殖，但它可能对宿主在另一个环境中的生存或繁殖没有影响。当这一影响是负面的时候，自然选择将有利于宿主种群的进化反应，从而导致寄生虫和宿主种群中正在进行的相互演变的共同演化热点。当共生对宿主的生存和繁殖没有影响时，共生生物种群的自然选择则会不利于宿主种群的进化反应（即共同演化的冷点）。
2. ''共同演化的热点和冷点''的出现是因为物种间相互作用的自然选择在某些环境中是相互的，而在其他环境中则不然。例如，一个共生的生物种群可能会损害其宿主在一个环境中的生存或繁殖，但它可能对宿主在另一个环境中的生存或繁殖没有影响。当这一影响是负面的时候，自然选择将有利于宿主种群的进化反应，从而导致寄生虫和宿主种群中正在进行的相互演变的共同演化热点。当共生对宿主的生存和繁殖没有影响时，共生生物种群的自然选择则会不利于宿主种群的进化反应（即共同演化的冷点）。
3. 最后，自然选择作用在局部和区域两方面的''特征-''不断-''重新混合''。在任何时候，当地的种群都会有一个自然选择作用的独特基因组合。这些种群之间的遗传差异之所以会出现，是因为每个当地种群都有新的突变、基因组的改变（例如全基因组复制）、来自其他种群个体或个体朝向其他种群的种间基因流、在种群规模较小时随机丢失或加强的基因（随机遗传漂变）、与其他种群的杂交，以及影响自然选择之作用的原始遗传物质的其他遗传和生态过程。更正式地说，共同演化的地理镶嵌可被看作是一种基因型与环境的相互作用（GxGxE），这种作用导致了相互作用物种的无向演化。
3. 最后，自然选择作用在局部和区域两方面的''特征-''不断-''重新混合''。在任何时候，当地的种群都会有一个自然选择作用的独特基因组合。这些种群之间的遗传差异之所以会出现，是因为每个当地种群都有新的突变、基因组的改变（例如全基因组复制）、来自其他种群个体或个体朝向其他种群的种间基因流、在种群规模较小时随机丢失或加强的基因（随机遗传漂变）、与其他种群的杂交，以及影响自然选择之作用的原始遗传物质的其他遗传和生态过程。更正式地说，共同演化的地理镶嵌可被看作是一种基因型与环境的相互作用（GxGxE），这种作用导致了相互作用物种的无向演化。
地理镶嵌理论已经通过广泛的数学模型、研究自然界中相互作用的物种，以及使用微生物物种和病毒的实验室实验得到探索。<ref name="Thompson, John N. 2005" /><ref name="Thompson, John N" />
地理镶嵌理论已经通过广泛的数学模型、研究自然界中相互作用的物种，以及使用微生物物种和病毒的实验室实验得到探索。<ref name="Thompson, John N. 2005" /><ref name="Thompson, John N" />
==在生物学之外==
==在生物学之外==
共同演化是一个生物学的概念，但已经类推至其他领域。
共同演化是一个生物学的概念，但已经类推至其他领域。
{{See also|Evolutionary computation}}
{{See also|Evolutionary computation}}
协同演化性的算法已经应用于生成[[artificial life|人工生命]]；以及优化、博弈学习和[[machine learning|机器学习]]等方面。<ref>Potter M. and K. De Jong, Evolving Complex Structures via Cooperative Coevolution, Fourth Annual Conference on Evolutionary Programming, San Diego, CA, 1995.</ref><ref>Potter M., The Design and Computational Model of Cooperative Coevolution, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Potter|first1=Mitchell A.|last2=De Jong|first2=Kenneth A.|title=Cooperative Coevolution: An Architecture for Evolving Coadapted Subcomponents|journal=Evolutionary Computation|date=2000|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–29|doi=10.1162/106365600568086|pmid=10753229|citeseerx=10.1.1.134.2926|s2cid=10265380}}</ref><ref>Weigand P., Liles W., De Jong K., An empirical analysis of collaboration methods in cooperative coevolutionary algorithms. Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO) 2001.</ref><ref>Weigand P., An Analysis of Cooperative Coevolutionary Algorithms, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 2003.</ref>[[Daniel Hillis|丹尼尔·希尔斯]]引进“共同进化寄生虫”防止优化过程陷入局部极大值。<ref>{{citation |author=Hillis, W.D. |year=1990 |title=Co-evolving parasites improve simulated evolution as an optimization procedure |journal=Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena |volume=42 |issue=1–3 |pages=228–234 |doi=10.1016/0167-2789(90)90076-2|bibcode=1990PhyD...42..228H}}</ref>[[Karl Sims|卡尔·西姆斯]]将这一概念用至了虚拟生物上面。<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sims |first1=Karl |title=Evolved Virtual Creatures |url=http://www.karlsims.com/evolved-virtual-creatures.html|publisher=Karl Sims|access-date=17 January 2017|date=1994}}</ref>
===在建筑学中===
===在建筑学中===
共同进化的概念被丹麦建筑师兼城市规划专家[[Henrik Valeur|亨利克 · 瓦勒尔]]在建筑学引入，作为“星架构”<ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrikvaleur.dk/biography/ |title=Henrik Valeur's biography |access-date=2015-08-29}}</ref>的对立面。作为2006年威尼斯建筑双年展丹麦馆的馆长，他创建了一个关于中国城市发展共同进化的展览项目，并获得了最佳国家馆的金狮奖。<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |title=About Co-evolution |publisher=Danish Architecture Centre |access-date=2015-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120011414/http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |archive-date=2015-11-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://movingcities.org/interviews/henrik-valeur_domuschina/ |title= An interview with Henrik Valeur |publisher=Movingcities |access-date=2015-10-17 |date=2007-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=Co-evolution: Danish/Chinese Collaboration on Sustainable Urban Development in China|publisher=Danish Architecture Centre|year= 2006|location= Copenhagen |isbn=978-87-90668-61-7 |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=India: the Urban Transition - a Case Study of Development Urbanism |publisher=Architectural Publisher B |year=2014 |isbn=978-87-92700-09-4 |title-link=India: the Urban Transition |page=22}}</ref>
在[[Newcastle University|纽卡斯尔大学]]的建筑、规划和景观学院，共同进化方法的建筑学被定义为让学生、志愿者和当地社区的成员参与实际的、实验性的工作的一种设计实践，旨在“建立用户和设计师之间的动态学习过程”。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Farmer |first=Graham |year=2017 |title=From Differentiation to Concretisation: Integrative Experiments in Sustainable Architecture |journal=Societies |volume=3 |issue=35 |page=18 |doi=10.3390/soc7040035 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===在宇宙学和天文学中===
===在宇宙学和天文学中===
在''自组织的宇宙''一书中，[[Erich Jantsch|埃里希·詹茨]]把[[cosmos|宇宙]]的整个演化归因于共同进化。
在[[astronomy|天文学]]中，一个新兴的理论提出[[black hole|黑洞]]和[[galaxy|星系]]以一种相互依存的方式生存，类似于生物的共同演化。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gnedin |first=Oleg Y. |display-authors=etal|title=Co-Evolution of Galactic Nuclei and Globular Cluster Systems |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=785 |issue=1 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/785/1/71 |bibcode=2014ApJ...785...71G |pages=71|arxiv=1308.0021|year=2014 |s2cid=118660328 }}</ref>
===在管理和组织研究中===
===在管理和组织研究中===
自2000年以来，越来越多的管理和组织研究讨论共同演化和共同演化过程。即便这样，Abatecola等人（2020年）揭示了在解释这些领域在共同演化的基本特征方面的普遍缺乏，意味着关于这种社会经济变化的前景以及未来可能走向的具体分析仍然缺失。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2020.119964 |title=Do organizations really co-evolve? Problematizing co-evolutionary change in management and organization studies |year=2020 |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |volume= 155 |last1=Abatecola |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Breslin |first2=Dermot |last3=Kask |first3=Johan |page=119964 |issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free }}</ref>
自2000年以来，越来越多的管理和组织研究讨论共同演化和共同演化过程。即便这样，Abatecola等人（2020年）揭示了在解释这些领域在共同演化的基本特征方面的普遍缺乏，意味着关于这种社会经济变化的前景以及未来可能走向的具体分析仍然缺失。<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2020.119964 |title=Do organizations really co-evolve? Problematizing co-evolutionary change in management and organization studies |year=2020 |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |volume= 155 |last1=Abatecola |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Breslin |first2=Dermot |last3=Kask |first3=Johan |page=119964 |issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===在社会学中===
===在社会学中===
在''发展的背叛：进步的终结和未来的共同演化修正''（1994）<ref>{{cite book |last=Norgaard |first=Richard B. |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and a Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>中，[[Richard Norgaard|理查德·诺尔加尔]]提出了一个共同演化的宇宙学来解释社会和环境系统是如何相互影响和重塑的。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glasser |first1=Harold |year=1996 |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future by Richard B. Norgaard |journal=Environmental Values |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=267–270|jstor=30301478 }}</ref>在''共同演化经济学：经济、社会和环境''（1994）中，约翰 · 高迪认为: “经济、社会和环境在共同进化的关系中联系在一起。”。<ref>{{cite book |last=Gowdy |first=John |title=Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment |year=1994 |publisher=Springer |pages=1–2}}</ref>
在''发展的背叛：进步的终结和未来的共同演化修正''（1994）<ref>{{cite book |last=Norgaard |first=Richard B. |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and a Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>中，理查德·诺尔加尔提出了一个共同演化的宇宙学来解释社会和环境系统是如何相互影响和重塑的。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glasser |first1=Harold |year=1996 |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future by Richard B. Norgaard |journal=Environmental Values |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=267–270|jstor=30301478 }}</ref>在''共同演化经济学：经济、社会和环境''（1994）中，约翰 · 高迪认为: “经济、社会和环境在共同进化的关系中联系在一起。”。<ref>{{cite book |last=Gowdy |first=John |title=Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment |year=1994 |publisher=Springer |pages=1–2}}</ref>
===在科技中===
===在科技中===
{{Further|Software ecosystem}}
{{Further|Software ecosystem}}
[[Computer software]] and [[computer hardware|hardware]] can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, [[operating system]]s and computer [[application software|applications]], [[web browser]]s, and [[web application]]s.
[[Computer software|计算机软件]]和[[computer hardware|硬件]]可以被看作是两个独立而本质联系的成分。类似地，[[operating system|操作系统]]和计算机[[application software|应用程序]]、[[web browser|网络浏览器]]和[[web application|网络应用程序]]也是这样。
所有这些系统相互依存，通过一种演进过程一步一步前进。硬件、操作系统或网页浏览器的改变可能会引入新的功能，然后将这些功能合并到相应的应用程序中。<ref>Theo D'Hondt, Kris De Volder, Kim Mens and Roel Wuyts, Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation, TheKluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science, 2002, Volume 648, Part 2, 207–224 {{doi|10.1007/978-1-4615-0883-0_7}}</ref>这个想法与[[sociotechnical system|社会技术系统]]分析和设计中的“联合优化”概念密切相关，在这个概念中，一个系统被理解为既包括用于生产和维护的工具和硬件的“技术系统”，也包括一个关系和程序的“社会系统”，通过这个系统，系统的目标以及系统内外的所有其他人和组织关系同技术联系在一起；当技术系统和社会系统被有意地共同发展时，这种系统工作得最好。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cherns |first1=A. |year=1976 |title=The principles of sociotechnical design |journal=Human Relations |volume=29 |issue=8 |page=8 |doi=10.1177/001872677602900806|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== 也可以看看 ==
==也可以看看==
* Bak-Sneppen模型
* Bak-Sneppen模型
* 共同灭绝
* 共同灭绝
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
==外部链接==
*[http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/coevolution-6703/ 共同演化]，[[Stephen C. Stearns|史蒂芬 C. 斯特恩斯]]的讲座视频（耶鲁大学开放课程）
== 外部链接 ==
*[http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/coevolution-6703/ 共同演化]，讲座视频 Stephen c. Stearns（耶鲁大学开放课程）
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}