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小第52行：
第52行： − − == Overview == − − 概览 第108行：
第104行： − − == Conditions == − − 条件 第138行：
第130行： − − ==Relation of exchange equilibrium between systems== − − 系统之间的交换均衡关系 第170行：
第158行： − − ==Thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium of a system== − − 系统内部平衡的热力学状态 第194行：
第178行： − − ==Multiple contact equilibrium== − − 多点接触平衡 第242行：
第222行： − − == Local and global equilibrium == − − 局部和全球均衡 第290行：
第266行： − − ==Reservations== − − 预订 第346行：
第318行： − − ==Definitions== − − 定义 第482行：
第450行： − − ==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium== − − 内部热力学平衡状态的特征 − − ===Homogeneity in the absence of external forces=== − − 没有外部力量的同质性 第504行：
第464行： − − ===Uniform temperature=== − − 均匀温度 第534行：
第490行： − − ===Number of real variables needed for specification=== − − 规范所需的实变量数目 第558行：
第510行： − − ===Stability against small perturbations=== − − 对小扰动的稳定性 第572行：
第520行： − − ===Approach to thermodynamic equilibrium within an isolated system=== − − 孤立系统中的热力学平衡 第588行：
第532行： − − ===Fluctuations within an isolated system in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium=== − − 孤立系统内部热力学平衡的波动 第652行：
第592行： − − === Thermal equilibrium === − − 热平衡 第684行：
第620行： − − ==Non-equilibrium== − − ==Non-equilibrium== 第720行：
第652行： − − ==See also == − − 参见 第834行：
第762行： − − ==General references== − − 一般参考资料 第850行：
第774行： − − ==References== − − 参考资料 第860行：
第780行： − − ==Cited bibliography== − − 引用文献目录 第942行：
第858行： − − == External links == − − 外部链接
Moved page from wikipedia:en:Thermodynamic equilibrium (history)
== Overview ==
== Overview ==
{{Thermodynamics|cTopic=[[Thermodynamic system|Systems]]}}
{{Thermodynamics|cTopic=[[Thermodynamic system|Systems]]}}
== Conditions ==
== Conditions ==
* For a completely isolated system, ''S'' is maximum at thermodynamic equilibrium.
* For a completely isolated system, ''S'' is maximum at thermodynamic equilibrium.
==Relation of exchange equilibrium between systems==
==Relation of exchange equilibrium between systems==
==Thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium of a system==
==Thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium of a system==
==Multiple contact equilibrium==
==Multiple contact equilibrium==
== Local and global equilibrium ==
== Local and global equilibrium ==
==Reservations==
==Reservations==
==Definitions==
==Definitions==
==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==
==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==
===Homogeneity in the absence of external forces===
===Homogeneity in the absence of external forces===
A thermodynamic system consisting of a single phase in the absence of external forces, in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium, is homogeneous.<ref name="Planck 1903 3"/> This means that the material in any small volume element of the system can be interchanged with the material of any other geometrically congruent volume element of the system, and the effect is to leave the system thermodynamically unchanged. In general, a strong external force field makes a system of a single phase in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium inhomogeneous with respect to some [[Intensive and extensive properties|intensive variables]]. For example, a relatively dense component of a mixture can be concentrated by centrifugation.
A thermodynamic system consisting of a single phase in the absence of external forces, in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium, is homogeneous.<ref name="Planck 1903 3"/> This means that the material in any small volume element of the system can be interchanged with the material of any other geometrically congruent volume element of the system, and the effect is to leave the system thermodynamically unchanged. In general, a strong external force field makes a system of a single phase in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium inhomogeneous with respect to some [[Intensive and extensive properties|intensive variables]]. For example, a relatively dense component of a mixture can be concentrated by centrifugation.
===Uniform temperature===
===Uniform temperature===
Such equilibrium inhomogeneity, induced by external forces, does not occur for the intensive variable [[temperature]]. According to [[Edward A. Guggenheim|E.A. Guggenheim]], "The most important conception of thermodynamics is temperature."<ref>[[Edward A. Guggenheim|Guggenheim, E.A.]] (1949/1967), p.5.</ref> Planck introduces his treatise with a brief account of heat and temperature and thermal equilibrium, and then announces: "In the following we shall deal chiefly with homogeneous, isotropic bodies of any form, possessing throughout their substance the same temperature and density, and subject to a uniform pressure acting everywhere perpendicular to the surface."<ref name="Planck 1903 3">[[Max Planck|Planck, M.]] (1897/1927), p.3.</ref> As did Carathéodory, Planck was setting aside surface effects and external fields and anisotropic crystals. Though referring to temperature, Planck did not there explicitly refer to the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium. In contrast, Carathéodory's scheme of presentation of classical thermodynamics for closed systems postulates the concept of an "equilibrium state" following Gibbs (Gibbs speaks routinely of a "thermodynamic state"), though not explicitly using the phrase 'thermodynamic equilibrium', nor explicitly postulating the existence of a temperature to define it.
Such equilibrium inhomogeneity, induced by external forces, does not occur for the intensive variable [[temperature]]. According to [[Edward A. Guggenheim|E.A. Guggenheim]], "The most important conception of thermodynamics is temperature."<ref>[[Edward A. Guggenheim|Guggenheim, E.A.]] (1949/1967), p.5.</ref> Planck introduces his treatise with a brief account of heat and temperature and thermal equilibrium, and then announces: "In the following we shall deal chiefly with homogeneous, isotropic bodies of any form, possessing throughout their substance the same temperature and density, and subject to a uniform pressure acting everywhere perpendicular to the surface."<ref name="Planck 1903 3">[[Max Planck|Planck, M.]] (1897/1927), p.3.</ref> As did Carathéodory, Planck was setting aside surface effects and external fields and anisotropic crystals. Though referring to temperature, Planck did not there explicitly refer to the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium. In contrast, Carathéodory's scheme of presentation of classical thermodynamics for closed systems postulates the concept of an "equilibrium state" following Gibbs (Gibbs speaks routinely of a "thermodynamic state"), though not explicitly using the phrase 'thermodynamic equilibrium', nor explicitly postulating the existence of a temperature to define it.
===Number of real variables needed for specification===
===Number of real variables needed for specification===
===Stability against small perturbations===
===Stability against small perturbations===
As noted above, J.R. Partington points out that a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is stable against small transient perturbations. Without this condition, in general, experiments intended to study systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are in severe difficulties.
As noted above, J.R. Partington points out that a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is stable against small transient perturbations. Without this condition, in general, experiments intended to study systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are in severe difficulties.
===Approach to thermodynamic equilibrium within an isolated system===
===Approach to thermodynamic equilibrium within an isolated system===
===Fluctuations within an isolated system in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium===
===Fluctuations within an isolated system in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium===
=== Thermal equilibrium ===
=== Thermal equilibrium ===
{{Main|Thermal equilibrium}}
{{Main|Thermal equilibrium}}
==Non-equilibrium==
==Non-equilibrium==
==See also ==
==See also ==
{{Portal|Chemistry}}
{{Portal|Chemistry}}
==General references==
==General references==
* Cesare Barbieri (2007) ''Fundamentals of Astronomy''. First Edition (QB43.3.B37 2006) CRC Press {{ISBN|0-7503-0886-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7503-0886-1}}
* Cesare Barbieri (2007) ''Fundamentals of Astronomy''. First Edition (QB43.3.B37 2006) CRC Press {{ISBN|0-7503-0886-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7503-0886-1}}
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}
==Cited bibliography==
==Cited bibliography==
== External links ==
== External links ==
*[http://ads.harvard.edu/books/1989fsa..book/AbookC15.pdf Breakdown of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium] George W. Collins, The Fundamentals of Stellar Astrophysics, Chapter 15
*[http://ads.harvard.edu/books/1989fsa..book/AbookC15.pdf Breakdown of Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium] George W. Collins, The Fundamentals of Stellar Astrophysics, Chapter 15