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Moved page from wikipedia:en:History of artificial life (history)
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。
{{Refimprove|date=January 2007}}
The idea of human artifacts being given life has fascinated humankind for as long as people have been recording their myths and stories. Whether [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] or [[Frankenstein]], humanity has been fascinated with the idea of [[artificial life]].
The idea of human artifacts being given life has fascinated humankind for as long as people have been recording their myths and stories. Whether Pygmalion or Frankenstein, humanity has been fascinated with the idea of artificial life.
只要人们一直在记录他们的神话和故事，人类就会对赋予人类生命的艺术品产生兴趣。无论是皮格马利翁还是弗兰肯斯坦，人类都对人工生命的概念着了迷。
== Pre-computer ==
[[Automaton]]s were quite a novelty. In the days before computers and electronics, some were very sophisticated, using [[pneumatics]], [[mechanics]], and [[hydraulics]]. The first automata were conceived during the third and second centuries BC and these were demonstrated by the theorems of [[Hero of Alexandria]], which included sophisticated mechanical and hydraulic solutions.<ref>Droz, Edmond. (April 1962), From joined doll to talking robot, New Scientist, vol. 14, no. 282. pp. 37–40.</ref> Many of his notable works were included in the book ''Pneumatics'', which was also used for constructing machines until early modern times.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Synthetic Biology Analysed: Tools for Discussion and Evaluation|last=Engelhard|first=Margret|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=9783319251431|location=Cham|pages=75}}</ref> In 1490, Leonardo da Vinci also constructed an [[Leonardo's robot|armored knight]], which is considered the first humanoid robot in Western civilization.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Mobile Robot Control|last=Tzafestas|first=Spyros|publisher=Elsevier|year=2014|isbn=9780124170490|location=Waltham, MA|pages=3}}</ref>
Automatons were quite a novelty. In the days before computers and electronics, some were very sophisticated, using pneumatics, mechanics, and hydraulics. The first automata were conceived during the third and second centuries BC and these were demonstrated by the theorems of Hero of Alexandria, which included sophisticated mechanical and hydraulic solutions. Many of his notable works were included in the book Pneumatics, which was also used for constructing machines until early modern times. In 1490, Leonardo da Vinci also constructed an armored knight, which is considered the first humanoid robot in Western civilization.
机器人是相当新奇的东西。在计算机和电子技术出现之前，有些是非常复杂的，使用气动、机械和液压。第一个自动机是在公元前三世纪和第二世纪构想出来的，这些被希罗的定理所证明，其中包括复杂的机械和液压解决方案。他的许多著名作品都收录在《气体力学》一书中，这本书直到现代早期还用于制造机器。1490年，列奥纳多·达·芬奇还制造了一个盔甲骑士，这被认为是西方文明中第一个人形机器人。
Other early famous examples include [[al-Jazari]]'s [[humanoid robot]]s. This Arabic inventor once constructed a band of automata, which can be commanded to play different pieces of music.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science Year by Year , Dorling Kindersley, 2013: Science Year by Year|last=Winston|first=Robert|publisher=DK|year=2013|isbn=9781409316138|location=London|pages=334}}</ref> There is also the case of [[Jacques de Vaucanson]]'s [[digesting Duck|artificial duck]] exhibited in 1735, which had thousands of moving parts and one of the first to mimic a biological system.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cellular Automaton Modeling of Biological Pattern Formation: Characterization, Examples, and Analysis, 2nd edition|last=Deutsch|first=Andreas|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2018|isbn=9781489979780|location=New York|pages=67}}</ref> The duck could reportedly eat and digest, drink, quack, and splash in a pool. It was exhibited all over Europe until it fell into disrepair.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nyu.edu/pages/linguistics/courses/v610051/gelmanr/ling.html| title=Gallery of Automata| accessdate=2006-03-03| first=Rony| last=Gelman}}</ref>
Other early famous examples include al-Jazari's humanoid robots. This Arabic inventor once constructed a band of automata, which can be commanded to play different pieces of music. There is also the case of Jacques de Vaucanson's artificial duck exhibited in 1735, which had thousands of moving parts and one of the first to mimic a biological system. The duck could reportedly eat and digest, drink, quack, and splash in a pool. It was exhibited all over Europe until it fell into disrepair.
其他早期著名的例子包括 al-Jazari 的人形机器人。这位阿拉伯发明家曾经建造了一台自动机，可以命令它演奏不同的音乐。还有1735年雅克 · 德 · 沃坎森的人造鸭展览，它有数千个活动部件，是第一个模拟生物系统的人造鸭。据报道，鸭子可以吃、消化、喝、呱呱叫，还可以在池塘里溅水。它在欧洲各地展出，直到年久失修。
However, it wasn't until the invention of cheap computing power that [[artificial life]] as a legitimate science began in earnest, steeped more in the theoretical and computational than the mechanical and mythological.
However, it wasn't until the invention of cheap computing power that artificial life as a legitimate science began in earnest, steeped more in the theoretical and computational than the mechanical and mythological.
然而，直到廉价计算能力的发明，人工生命作为一门合法的科学才真正开始，更多地沉浸在理论和计算中，而不是机械和神话中。
==1950s–1970s==
One of the earliest thinkers of the modern age to postulate the potentials of artificial life, separate from [[artificial intelligence]], was math and computer prodigy [[John von Neumann]]. At the [[Hixon Symposium]], hosted by [[Linus Pauling]] in [[Pasadena, California]] in the late 1940s, von Neumann delivered a lecture titled "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." He defined an "automaton" as any machine whose behavior proceeded logically from step to step by combining information from the environment and its own programming, and said that natural organisms would in the end be found to follow similar simple rules. He also spoke about the idea of [[self-replicating machine]]s. He postulated a machine – a [[kinematic automaton]] – made up of a control computer, a construction arm, and a long series of instructions, floating in a lake of parts. By following the instructions that were part of its own body, it could create an identical machine. He followed this idea by creating (with [[Stanislaw Ulam]]) a purely logic-based automaton, not requiring a physical body but based on the changing states of the cells in an infinite grid – the first [[cellular automaton]]. It was extraordinarily complicated compared to later CAs, having hundreds of thousands of cells which could each exist in one of twenty-nine states, but von Neumann felt he needed the complexity in order for it to function not just as a self-replicating "machine", but also as a [[universal computer]] as defined by [[Alan Turing]]. This "[[Von Neumann universal constructor|universal constructor]]" read from a tape of instructions and wrote out a series of cells that could then be made active to leave a fully functional copy of the original machine and its tape. Von Neumann worked on his [[automata theory]] intensively right up to his death, and considered it his most important work.
One of the earliest thinkers of the modern age to postulate the potentials of artificial life, separate from artificial intelligence, was math and computer prodigy John von Neumann. At the Hixon Symposium, hosted by Linus Pauling in Pasadena, California in the late 1940s, von Neumann delivered a lecture titled "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." He defined an "automaton" as any machine whose behavior proceeded logically from step to step by combining information from the environment and its own programming, and said that natural organisms would in the end be found to follow similar simple rules. He also spoke about the idea of self-replicating machines. He postulated a machine – a kinematic automaton – made up of a control computer, a construction arm, and a long series of instructions, floating in a lake of parts. By following the instructions that were part of its own body, it could create an identical machine. He followed this idea by creating (with Stanislaw Ulam) a purely logic-based automaton, not requiring a physical body but based on the changing states of the cells in an infinite grid – the first cellular automaton. It was extraordinarily complicated compared to later CAs, having hundreds of thousands of cells which could each exist in one of twenty-nine states, but von Neumann felt he needed the complexity in order for it to function not just as a self-replicating "machine", but also as a universal computer as defined by Alan Turing. This "universal constructor" read from a tape of instructions and wrote out a series of cells that could then be made active to leave a fully functional copy of the original machine and its tape. Von Neumann worked on his automata theory intensively right up to his death, and considered it his most important work.
现代最早的思想家之一，假定人工生命的潜力，从人工智能分离出来，是数学和计算机神童约翰·冯·诺伊曼。上世纪40年代末，在加利福尼亚州帕萨迪纳市由莱纳斯 · 鲍林主持的 Hixon 研讨会上，冯 · 诺依曼发表了题为“自动机的一般和逻辑理论”的演讲他将“自动机”定义为任何一种机器，它的行为通过将来自环境的信息和自身的编程结合起来，从逻辑上一步一步地进行，并说自然界的有机体最终会被发现遵循类似的简单规则。他还谈到了自我复制机器的想法。他假设了一个机器——一个运动学自动机——由一个控制计算机、一个结构臂和一系列的指令组成，漂浮在零件的湖中。通过遵循它自己身体的一部分的指令，它可以创造一个完全相同的机器。他遵循这个想法，与 Stanislaw Ulam 一起创造了一个纯粹基于逻辑的自动机，不需要物理身体，而是基于无限网格中细胞状态的变化——第一个细胞自动机。与后来的 ca 相比，它非常复杂，拥有成千上万的细胞，每个细胞可以存在于29个状态中的一个，但冯 · 诺依曼觉得他需要这种复杂性，以便它不仅能够作为一台自我复制的“机器” ，而且能够作为一台由阿兰 · 图灵定义的通用计算机运行。这个“通用构造函数”读取指令磁带，并写出一系列单元格，这些单元格可以被激活，从而留下原始机器及其磁带的功能齐全的副本。冯 · 诺依曼一直致力于他的自动机理论，直到他去世，并认为这是他最重要的工作。
[[Homer Jacobson]] illustrated basic self-replication in the 1950s with a model train set – a seed "organism" consisting of a "head" and "tail" boxcar could use the simple rules of the system to consistently create new "organisms" identical to itself, so long as there was a random pool of new boxcars to draw from.
Homer Jacobson illustrated basic self-replication in the 1950s with a model train set – a seed "organism" consisting of a "head" and "tail" boxcar could use the simple rules of the system to consistently create new "organisms" identical to itself, so long as there was a random pool of new boxcars to draw from.
荷马 · 雅各布森在20世纪50年代用一个火车模型为《自我复制画了插图——一个由“头”和“尾”组成的种子“有机体”可以利用这个系统的简单规则，一致地创造出与自身相同的新“有机体” ，只要有一个随机的新货车车厢池可以利用。
[[Edward F. Moore]] proposed "Artificial Living Plants", which would be floating factories which could create copies of themselves. They could be programmed to perform some function (extracting fresh water, harvesting minerals from seawater) for an investment that would be relatively small compared to the huge returns from the exponentially growing numbers of factories. [[Freeman Dyson]] also studied the idea, envisioning self-replicating machines sent to explore and exploit other planets and moons, and a NASA group called the Self-Replicating Systems Concept Team performed a 1980 study on the feasibility of a self-building lunar factory.
Edward F. Moore proposed "Artificial Living Plants", which would be floating factories which could create copies of themselves. They could be programmed to perform some function (extracting fresh water, harvesting minerals from seawater) for an investment that would be relatively small compared to the huge returns from the exponentially growing numbers of factories. Freeman Dyson also studied the idea, envisioning self-replicating machines sent to explore and exploit other planets and moons, and a NASA group called the Self-Replicating Systems Concept Team performed a 1980 study on the feasibility of a self-building lunar factory.
爱德华 · f · 摩尔(edwardf.Moore)提出了“人造活植物”的概念，这种植物是漂浮的工厂，它们可以创造自己的复制品。可以对它们进行程序设计，让它们发挥某些功能(提取淡水、从海水中获取矿物质) ，相对于工厂数量呈指数增长所带来的巨大回报而言，这笔投资相对较小。弗里曼 · 戴森也研究了这个想法，设想了自我复制的机器被送去探索和开发其他行星和卫星，美国宇航局的一个团队称为自我复制系统概念小组在1980年进行了一项关于自我建造月球工厂可行性的研究。
University of Cambridge professor [[John Horton Conway]] invented the most famous cellular automaton in the 1960s. He called it the [[Conway's Game of Life|Game of Life]], and publicized it through [[Martin Gardner]]'s column in ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine.
University of Cambridge professor John Horton Conway invented the most famous cellular automaton in the 1960s. He called it the Game of Life, and publicized it through Martin Gardner's column in Scientific American magazine.
20世纪60年代，剑桥大学教授约翰·何顿·康威发明了最著名的细胞自动机。他称之为生命的游戏，并通过马丁 · 加德纳在《科学美国人》杂志上的专栏宣传这个游戏。
==1970s–1980s==
Philosophy scholar [[Arthur Burks]], who had worked with von Neumann (and indeed, organized his papers after Neumann's death), headed the Logic of Computers Group at the [[University of Michigan]]. He brought the overlooked views of 19th century American thinker [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] into the modern age. Peirce was a strong believer that all of nature's workings were based on logic (though not always deductive logic). The Michigan group was one of the few groups still interested in alife and CAs in the early 1970s; one of its students, [[Tommaso Toffoli]] argued in his PhD thesis that the field was important because its results explain the simple rules that underlay complex effects in nature. Toffoli later provided a key proof that CAs were [[Reversible computing|reversible]], just as the true universe is considered to be.
Philosophy scholar Arthur Burks, who had worked with von Neumann (and indeed, organized his papers after Neumann's death), headed the Logic of Computers Group at the University of Michigan. He brought the overlooked views of 19th century American thinker Charles Sanders Peirce into the modern age. Peirce was a strong believer that all of nature's workings were based on logic (though not always deductive logic). The Michigan group was one of the few groups still interested in alife and CAs in the early 1970s; one of its students, Tommaso Toffoli argued in his PhD thesis that the field was important because its results explain the simple rules that underlay complex effects in nature. Toffoli later provided a key proof that CAs were reversible, just as the true universe is considered to be.
哲学学者 Arthur Burks，曾与 von Neumann 共事(事实上，在 Neumann 死后组织了他的论文) ，领导了密歇根大学的计算机逻辑小组。他把19世纪美国思想家查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士的被忽视的观点带到了现代。皮尔斯坚信自然界所有的运作都是基于逻辑的(尽管并不总是演绎逻辑)。在20世纪70年代早期，密歇根大学的研究小组是少数几个仍对生命和复杂自然环境感兴趣的小组之一; 该小组的一名学生托马索 · 托福利在他的博士论文中指出，这个领域很重要，因为它的结果解释了自然界复杂效应背后的简单规则。托福利后来提供了一个关键的证据，证明了 ca 是可逆的，就像真正的宇宙被认为是可逆的一样。
[[Christopher Langton]] was an unconventional researcher, with an undistinguished academic career that led him to a job programming [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] mainframes for a hospital. He became enthralled by Conway's Game of Life, and began pursuing the idea that the computer could emulate living creatures. After years of study (and a near-fatal hang-gliding accident), he began attempting to actualize Von Neumann's CA and the work of [[Edgar F. Codd]], who had simplified Von Neumann's original twenty-nine state monster to one with only eight states. He succeeded in creating the first self-replicating computer organism in October 1979, using only an [[Apple II]] desktop computer. He entered Burks' graduate program at the Logic of Computers Group in 1982, at the age of 33, and helped to found a new discipline.
Christopher Langton was an unconventional researcher, with an undistinguished academic career that led him to a job programming DEC mainframes for a hospital. He became enthralled by Conway's Game of Life, and began pursuing the idea that the computer could emulate living creatures. After years of study (and a near-fatal hang-gliding accident), he began attempting to actualize Von Neumann's CA and the work of Edgar F. Codd, who had simplified Von Neumann's original twenty-nine state monster to one with only eight states. He succeeded in creating the first self-replicating computer organism in October 1979, using only an Apple II desktop computer. He entered Burks' graduate program at the Logic of Computers Group in 1982, at the age of 33, and helped to found a new discipline.
克里斯托弗·兰顿是一位非传统的研究员，他平庸的学术生涯导致他在一家医院的 DEC 主机上编写程序。他被康威的《生命的游戏》迷住了，并开始追求计算机可以模仿生物的想法。经过多年的研究(以及一次几乎致命的悬挂滑翔事故) ，他开始尝试实现冯 · 诺依曼的 CA 和埃德加 · f · 科德的工作，后者将冯 · 诺依曼最初的29个状态的怪物简化为只有8个状态的怪物。1979年10月，他只用一台苹果 II 型台式电脑就成功地创造出了第一台可自我复制的电脑机体。1982年，33岁的他参加了伯克斯在计算机逻辑集团的研究生课程，并帮助建立了一个新的学科。
Langton's official conference announcement of Artificial Life I was the earliest description of a field which had previously barely existed:<ref>Langton, C.G. (1989) "Artificial Life", in ''Artificial Life'', Langton (ed), (Addison-Wesley:Reading, MA) page 1.</ref>
Langton's official conference announcement of Artificial Life I was the earliest description of a field which had previously barely existed:
兰顿在官方会议上宣布的《人工生命 i 》是对一个以前几乎不存在的领域的最早描述:
<blockquote>''Artificial life is the study of artificial systems that exhibit behavior characteristic of natural living systems. It is the quest to explain life in any of its possible manifestations, without restriction to the particular examples that have evolved on earth. This includes biological and chemical experiments, computer simulations, and purely theoretical endeavors. Processes occurring on molecular, social, and evolutionary scales are subject to investigation. The ultimate goal is to extract the logical form of living systems.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>Artificial life is the study of artificial systems that exhibit behavior characteristic of natural living systems. It is the quest to explain life in any of its possible manifestations, without restriction to the particular examples that have evolved on earth. This includes biological and chemical experiments, computer simulations, and purely theoretical endeavors. Processes occurring on molecular, social, and evolutionary scales are subject to investigation. The ultimate goal is to extract the logical form of living systems.</blockquote>
人工生命是研究表现出自然生命系统行为特征的人工系统。它寻求解释生命的任何可能表现形式，而不局限于地球上演化出来的特殊例子。这包括生物和化学实验，计算机模拟，和纯理论的努力。在分子、社会和进化尺度上发生的过程需要进行调查。最终目标是提取出生命系统的逻辑形式
<blockquote>''Microelectronic technology and genetic engineering will soon give us the capability to create new life forms ''in silico'' as well as ''in vitro''. This capacity will present humanity with the most far-reaching technical, theoretical and ethical challenges it has ever confronted. The time seems appropriate for a gathering of those involved in attempts to simulate or synthesize aspects of living systems.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>Microelectronic technology and genetic engineering will soon give us the capability to create new life forms in silico as well as in vitro. This capacity will present humanity with the most far-reaching technical, theoretical and ethical challenges it has ever confronted. The time seems appropriate for a gathering of those involved in attempts to simulate or synthesize aspects of living systems.</blockquote>
微电子技术和基因工程将很快赋予我们在电子和体外创造新生命形式的能力。这种能力将给人类带来有史以来最深远的技术、理论和伦理挑战。这个时间似乎适合于那些试图模拟或综合生命系统各个方面的人们的聚会
[[Ed Fredkin]] founded the Information Mechanics Group at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], which united Toffoli, [[Norman Margolus]], [[Gerard Vichniac]], and [[Charles H. Bennett (computer scientist)|Charles Bennett]]. This group created a computer especially designed to execute cellular automata, eventually reducing it to the size of a single circuit board. This "cellular automata machine" allowed an explosion of alife research among scientists who could not otherwise afford sophisticated computers.
Ed Fredkin founded the Information Mechanics Group at MIT, which united Toffoli, Norman Margolus, Gerard Vichniac, and Charles Bennett. This group created a computer especially designed to execute cellular automata, eventually reducing it to the size of a single circuit board. This "cellular automata machine" allowed an explosion of alife research among scientists who could not otherwise afford sophisticated computers.
艾德 · 弗雷德金在麻省理工学院创立了信息机械集团，该集团将 Toffoli、诺曼 · 马戈卢斯、杰拉德 · 维克尼亚克和查尔斯 · 贝内特联合在一起。这个小组创造了一台专门用来执行细胞自动机的计算机，最终把它缩小到一块电路板的大小。这种“细胞自动机机器”使得本来买不起复杂计算机的科学家们能够进行大量的生活研究。
In 1982, computer scientist named [[Stephen Wolfram]] turned his attention to cellular automata. He explored and categorized the types of [[complexity]] displayed by one-dimensional CAs, and showed how they applied to natural phenomena such as the patterns of seashells and the nature of plant growth.
In 1982, computer scientist named Stephen Wolfram turned his attention to cellular automata. He explored and categorized the types of complexity displayed by one-dimensional CAs, and showed how they applied to natural phenomena such as the patterns of seashells and the nature of plant growth.
1982年，计算机科学家斯蒂芬 · 沃尔夫勒姆把注意力转向了细胞自动机。他研究并分类了单维 ca 所显示的复杂性类型，并展示了它们如何应用于自然现象，如贝壳的图案和植物生长的性质。
[[Norman Packard]], who worked with Wolfram at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], used CAs to simulate the growth of snowflakes, following very basic rules.
Norman Packard, who worked with Wolfram at the Institute for Advanced Study, used CAs to simulate the growth of snowflakes, following very basic rules.
诺曼 · 帕卡德在高级研究所与沃尔夫拉姆合作，他使用 ca 模拟雪花的生长，遵循非常基本的规则。
Computer animator [[Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)|Craig Reynolds]] similarly used three simple rules to create recognizable [[Flocking (behavior)|flocking]] behaviour in a [[Boids|computer program]] in 1987 to animate groups of boids. With no top-down programming at all, the boids produced lifelike solutions to evading obstacles placed in their path. [[Computer animation]] has continued to be a key commercial driver of alife research as the creators of [[Film|movie]]s attempt to find more realistic and inexpensive ways to animate natural forms such as plant life, animal movement, hair growth, and complicated organic textures.
Computer animator Craig Reynolds similarly used three simple rules to create recognizable flocking behaviour in a computer program in 1987 to animate groups of boids. With no top-down programming at all, the boids produced lifelike solutions to evading obstacles placed in their path. Computer animation has continued to be a key commercial driver of alife research as the creators of movies attempt to find more realistic and inexpensive ways to animate natural forms such as plant life, animal movement, hair growth, and complicated organic textures.
1987年，计算机动画师克雷格 · 雷诺兹同样使用三个简单的规则在一个计算机程序中创建了可识别的植物群集行为。由于根本没有自上而下的节目，博伊德夫妇为躲避前进道路上的障碍，提供了栩栩如生的解决方案。电脑动画一直是人生研究的主要商业驱动力，因为电影的创作者们试图找到更加现实和廉价的方法来使自然形式如植物、动物运动、毛发生长和复杂的有机材质等具有生命力。
[[J. Doyne Farmer]] was a key figure in tying artificial life research to the emerging field of [[complex adaptive system]]s, working at the [[Center for Nonlinear Studies]] (a basic research section of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]), just as its star chaos theorist [[Mitchell Feigenbaum]] was leaving. Farmer and Norman Packard chaired a conference in May 1985 called "Evolution, Games, and Learning", which was to presage many of the topics of later alife conferences.
J. Doyne Farmer was a key figure in tying artificial life research to the emerging field of complex adaptive systems, working at the Center for Nonlinear Studies (a basic research section of Los Alamos National Laboratory), just as its star chaos theorist Mitchell Feigenbaum was leaving. Farmer and Norman Packard chaired a conference in May 1985 called "Evolution, Games, and Learning", which was to presage many of the topics of later alife conferences.
是将人工生命研究与复杂适应系统这一新兴领域联系起来的关键人物，他在非线性研究中心(洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室的基础研究部门)工作，就在其明星混沌理论家米切尔·费根鲍姆离开的时候。1985年5月，法默和诺曼 · 帕卡德主持了一次名为“进化、游戏和学习”的会议，这次会议预示了后来人生会议的许多主题。
==2000s==
On the ecological front, research regarding the evolution of animal cooperative behavior (started by [[W. D. Hamilton]] in the 1960s <ref>Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II. J. Theor.
On the ecological front, research regarding the evolution of animal cooperative behavior (started by W. D. Hamilton in the 1960s <ref>Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II. J. Theor.
在生态学方面，对动物合作行为进化的研究(由汉密尔顿于20世纪60年代开始，文献记载为汉密尔顿。 社会行为的遗传进化。I 及 II。J. Theor.
Biol. 7, 1–52 (1964).</ref><ref>Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211,
Biol. 7, 1–52 (1964).</ref><ref>Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211,
Biol.7,1-52(1964) . / ref Axelrod，r. & Hamilton，W.d. 合作的演变。科学211,
1390–1396 (1981).</ref> resulting in theories of kin selection, reciprocity, multilevel selection and cultural group selection) was re-introduced via artificial life by [[Peter Turchin]] and Mikhail Burtsev in 2006. Previously, [[game theory]] has been utilized in similar investigation, however, that approach was deemed to be rather limiting in its amount of possible strategies and debatable set of payoff rules. The alife model designed here, instead, is based upon [[Conway's Game of Life]] but with much added complexity (there are over 10<sup>1000</sup> strategies that can potentially emerge). Most significantly, the interacting agents are characterized by external phenotype markers which allows for recognition amongst in-group members. In effect, it is shown that given the capacity to perceive these markers, agents within the system are then able to evolve new group behaviors under minimalistic assumptions. On top of the already known strategies of the bourgeois-[[hawk-dove game]], here two novel modes of cooperative attack and defense arise from the simulation.
1390–1396 (1981).</ref> resulting in theories of kin selection, reciprocity, multilevel selection and cultural group selection) was re-introduced via artificial life by Peter Turchin and Mikhail Burtsev in 2006. Previously, game theory has been utilized in similar investigation, however, that approach was deemed to be rather limiting in its amount of possible strategies and debatable set of payoff rules. The alife model designed here, instead, is based upon Conway's Game of Life but with much added complexity (there are over 10<sup>1000</sup> strategies that can potentially emerge). Most significantly, the interacting agents are characterized by external phenotype markers which allows for recognition amongst in-group members. In effect, it is shown that given the capacity to perceive these markers, agents within the system are then able to evolve new group behaviors under minimalistic assumptions. On top of the already known strategies of the bourgeois-hawk-dove game, here two novel modes of cooperative attack and defense arise from the simulation.
1390-1396(1981). 2006年，Peter Turchin 和 Mikhail Burtsev 通过人工生命重新引入了亲缘选择、互惠、多层选择和文化群选择等理论。在此之前，博弈论被用于类似的研究，但是这种方法被认为在可能策略的数量和有争议的支付规则集方面是相当有限的。这里设计的生命模型是基于 Conway 的生命游戏，但是增加了很多复杂性(有超过10个 sup 1000 / sup 策略可能出现)。最重要的是，相互作用的代理人是拥有属性的外部表型标记，它允许在组内成员之间的识别。实际上，研究表明，给予感知这些标记的能力，系统内的代理人就能够在最简假设下进化出新的群体行为。在已知的资产阶级-鹰派-鸽派对策策略之上，这里有两种新颖的合作攻击和防御模式从模拟中产生。
For the setup, this two-dimensional artificial world is divided into cells, each empty or containing a resource bundle. An empty cell can acquire a resource bundle with a certain probability per unit of time and lose it when an agent consumes the resource. Each agent is plainly constructed with a set of receptors, effectors (the components that govern the agents' behavior), and neural net which connect the two. In response to the environment, an agent may rest, eat, reproduce by division, move, turn and attack. All actions{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} <!--is this true? (see next comment)--> expend energy taken from its internal energy storage; once that is depleted, the agent dies. Consumption of resource, as well as other agents after defeating them, yields an increase <!--or should this say "a net increase"?--> in the energy storage. Reproduction is modeled as being asexual while the offspring receive half the parental energy. Agents are also equipped with sensory inputs that allow them to detect resources or other members within a parameter{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} in addition to its own level of vitality. As for the phenotype markers, they do not influence behavior but solely function as indicator of 'genetic' similarity. Heredity is achieved by having the relevant information be inherited by the offspring and subjected to a set rate of mutation.
For the setup, this two-dimensional artificial world is divided into cells, each empty or containing a resource bundle. An empty cell can acquire a resource bundle with a certain probability per unit of time and lose it when an agent consumes the resource. Each agent is plainly constructed with a set of receptors, effectors (the components that govern the agents' behavior), and neural net which connect the two. In response to the environment, an agent may rest, eat, reproduce by division, move, turn and attack. All actions <!--is this true? (see next comment)--> expend energy taken from its internal energy storage; once that is depleted, the agent dies. Consumption of resource, as well as other agents after defeating them, yields an increase <!--or should this say "a net increase"?--> in the energy storage. Reproduction is modeled as being asexual while the offspring receive half the parental energy. Agents are also equipped with sensory inputs that allow them to detect resources or other members within a parameter in addition to its own level of vitality. As for the phenotype markers, they do not influence behavior but solely function as indicator of 'genetic' similarity. Heredity is achieved by having the relevant information be inherited by the offspring and subjected to a set rate of mutation.
对于这个设置，这个二维的人工世界被划分为个单元，每个单元为空或包含一个资源包。一个空单元可以获得单位时间内一定概率的资源包，并在代理消耗该资源时丢失它。每个代理明显构建了一套受体，效应器(控制代理的行为的组成部分)和神经网络连接两者。作为对环境的反应，代理人可以通过分裂休息、进食、繁殖、移动、转向和攻击。所有的行动! ——这是真的吗？(见下一条评论)——从其内部能量储存中消耗能量; 一旦耗尽，该物质就死亡。资源的消耗，以及在击败它们之后的其他代理人，产生能量储存的增加! ——或者应该说“净增加” 。生殖被认为是无性繁殖，而后代则接收到双亲一半的能量。代理还配备了感官输入，使他们能够发现资源或其他成员的参数除了自己的活力水平。至于表型标记，它们不影响行为，而只是作为“遗传”相似性的指标。遗传是通过让后代继承相关信息并经历一定的突变率来实现的。
The objective of the investigation is to study how the presence of phenotype markers affects the model's range of evolving cooperative strategies. In addition, as the resource available in this 2D environment is capped, the simulation also serves to determine the effect of environmental carrying capacity on their emergence.
The objective of the investigation is to study how the presence of phenotype markers affects the model's range of evolving cooperative strategies. In addition, as the resource available in this 2D environment is capped, the simulation also serves to determine the effect of environmental carrying capacity on their emergence.
本研究旨在探讨表型标记的存在对模型合作策略演化范围的影响。此外，由于在这个二维环境中可用的资源是有限的，模拟也服务于确定环境承载力对它们的涌现的影响。
One previously unseen strategy is termed the "raven". These agents leave cells with in-group members, thus avoiding intra-specific competition, and attack out-group members voluntarily. Another strategy, named the 'starling', involves the agent sharing cells with in-group members. Despite individuals having smaller energy storage due to resource partitioning, this strategy permits highly effective defense against large invaders via the advantage in numbers. Ecologically speaking, this resembles the [[mobbing behavior]] that characterizes many species of small birds when they collectively defend against the predator.
One previously unseen strategy is termed the "raven". These agents leave cells with in-group members, thus avoiding intra-specific competition, and attack out-group members voluntarily. Another strategy, named the 'starling', involves the agent sharing cells with in-group members. Despite individuals having smaller energy storage due to resource partitioning, this strategy permits highly effective defense against large invaders via the advantage in numbers. Ecologically speaking, this resembles the mobbing behavior that characterizes many species of small birds when they collectively defend against the predator.
一种前所未见的策略被称为“乌鸦”。这些代理离开与组内成员细胞，从而避免内部特定的竞争，并攻击组外成员自愿。另一种策略称为“ starling” ，涉及代理与组内成员共享单元。尽管由于资源分割，个人拥有较小的能量存储，这种策略允许通过数字优势对大型入侵者进行高效的防御。从生态学的角度来说，这类似于许多小型鸟类在集体防御捕食者时所具有的聚众滋扰行为。
In conclusion, the research claims that the simulated results have important implications for the evolution of [[territoriality (ethology)|territoriality]] by showing that within the alife framework it is possible to "model not only how one strategy displaces another, but also the very process by which new strategies emerge from a large quantity of possibilities".<ref>Burtsev M, Turchin P. 2006. Evolution of cooperative strategies from first principles. Nature</ref>
In conclusion, the research claims that the simulated results have important implications for the evolution of territoriality by showing that within the alife framework it is possible to "model not only how one strategy displaces another, but also the very process by which new strategies emerge from a large quantity of possibilities".
最后，研究声称，模拟结果对地域性的演变具有重要意义，因为它表明，在生命框架内，不仅可以“模拟一种战略如何取代另一种战略，而且可以模拟从大量可能性中产生新战略的过程”。
Work is also underway to create [[computational biomodeling|cellular models of artificial life]]. Initial work on building a complete biochemical model of cellular behavior is underway as part of a number of different research projects, namely [[Blue Gene]] which seeks to understand the mechanisms behind [[protein folding]].
Work is also underway to create cellular models of artificial life. Initial work on building a complete biochemical model of cellular behavior is underway as part of a number of different research projects, namely Blue Gene which seeks to understand the mechanisms behind protein folding.
创建人工生命细胞模型的工作也在进行中。建立一个完整的细胞行为生化模型的初步工作正在进行中，这是许多不同研究项目的一部分，即蓝色基因，该项目旨在了解蛋白质折叠背后的机制。
== See also ==
* [[Automaton]]
* [[Clanking replicator]]
* [[Cellular automaton]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014). The past, present, and future of artificial life. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 1(8). https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014). The past, present, and future of artificial life. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 1(8). https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014).人工生命的过去、现在和未来。机器人和人工智能的前沿，1(8)。Https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
[[Category:Artificial life]]
Category:Artificial life
类别: 人工生命
[[Category:History of biology|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
[[Category:History of technology|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
[[Category:History of artificial intelligence|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
<noinclude>
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:History of artificial life]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[人工生命历史/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
[[Category:待整理页面]]
{{Refimprove|date=January 2007}}
The idea of human artifacts being given life has fascinated humankind for as long as people have been recording their myths and stories. Whether [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] or [[Frankenstein]], humanity has been fascinated with the idea of [[artificial life]].
The idea of human artifacts being given life has fascinated humankind for as long as people have been recording their myths and stories. Whether Pygmalion or Frankenstein, humanity has been fascinated with the idea of artificial life.
只要人们一直在记录他们的神话和故事，人类就会对赋予人类生命的艺术品产生兴趣。无论是皮格马利翁还是弗兰肯斯坦，人类都对人工生命的概念着了迷。
== Pre-computer ==
[[Automaton]]s were quite a novelty. In the days before computers and electronics, some were very sophisticated, using [[pneumatics]], [[mechanics]], and [[hydraulics]]. The first automata were conceived during the third and second centuries BC and these were demonstrated by the theorems of [[Hero of Alexandria]], which included sophisticated mechanical and hydraulic solutions.<ref>Droz, Edmond. (April 1962), From joined doll to talking robot, New Scientist, vol. 14, no. 282. pp. 37–40.</ref> Many of his notable works were included in the book ''Pneumatics'', which was also used for constructing machines until early modern times.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Synthetic Biology Analysed: Tools for Discussion and Evaluation|last=Engelhard|first=Margret|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=9783319251431|location=Cham|pages=75}}</ref> In 1490, Leonardo da Vinci also constructed an [[Leonardo's robot|armored knight]], which is considered the first humanoid robot in Western civilization.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introduction to Mobile Robot Control|last=Tzafestas|first=Spyros|publisher=Elsevier|year=2014|isbn=9780124170490|location=Waltham, MA|pages=3}}</ref>
Automatons were quite a novelty. In the days before computers and electronics, some were very sophisticated, using pneumatics, mechanics, and hydraulics. The first automata were conceived during the third and second centuries BC and these were demonstrated by the theorems of Hero of Alexandria, which included sophisticated mechanical and hydraulic solutions. Many of his notable works were included in the book Pneumatics, which was also used for constructing machines until early modern times. In 1490, Leonardo da Vinci also constructed an armored knight, which is considered the first humanoid robot in Western civilization.
机器人是相当新奇的东西。在计算机和电子技术出现之前，有些是非常复杂的，使用气动、机械和液压。第一个自动机是在公元前三世纪和第二世纪构想出来的，这些被希罗的定理所证明，其中包括复杂的机械和液压解决方案。他的许多著名作品都收录在《气体力学》一书中，这本书直到现代早期还用于制造机器。1490年，列奥纳多·达·芬奇还制造了一个盔甲骑士，这被认为是西方文明中第一个人形机器人。
Other early famous examples include [[al-Jazari]]'s [[humanoid robot]]s. This Arabic inventor once constructed a band of automata, which can be commanded to play different pieces of music.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science Year by Year , Dorling Kindersley, 2013: Science Year by Year|last=Winston|first=Robert|publisher=DK|year=2013|isbn=9781409316138|location=London|pages=334}}</ref> There is also the case of [[Jacques de Vaucanson]]'s [[digesting Duck|artificial duck]] exhibited in 1735, which had thousands of moving parts and one of the first to mimic a biological system.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cellular Automaton Modeling of Biological Pattern Formation: Characterization, Examples, and Analysis, 2nd edition|last=Deutsch|first=Andreas|publisher=Birkhäuser|year=2018|isbn=9781489979780|location=New York|pages=67}}</ref> The duck could reportedly eat and digest, drink, quack, and splash in a pool. It was exhibited all over Europe until it fell into disrepair.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nyu.edu/pages/linguistics/courses/v610051/gelmanr/ling.html| title=Gallery of Automata| accessdate=2006-03-03| first=Rony| last=Gelman}}</ref>
Other early famous examples include al-Jazari's humanoid robots. This Arabic inventor once constructed a band of automata, which can be commanded to play different pieces of music. There is also the case of Jacques de Vaucanson's artificial duck exhibited in 1735, which had thousands of moving parts and one of the first to mimic a biological system. The duck could reportedly eat and digest, drink, quack, and splash in a pool. It was exhibited all over Europe until it fell into disrepair.
其他早期著名的例子包括 al-Jazari 的人形机器人。这位阿拉伯发明家曾经建造了一台自动机，可以命令它演奏不同的音乐。还有1735年雅克 · 德 · 沃坎森的人造鸭展览，它有数千个活动部件，是第一个模拟生物系统的人造鸭。据报道，鸭子可以吃、消化、喝、呱呱叫，还可以在池塘里溅水。它在欧洲各地展出，直到年久失修。
However, it wasn't until the invention of cheap computing power that [[artificial life]] as a legitimate science began in earnest, steeped more in the theoretical and computational than the mechanical and mythological.
However, it wasn't until the invention of cheap computing power that artificial life as a legitimate science began in earnest, steeped more in the theoretical and computational than the mechanical and mythological.
然而，直到廉价计算能力的发明，人工生命作为一门合法的科学才真正开始，更多地沉浸在理论和计算中，而不是机械和神话中。
==1950s–1970s==
One of the earliest thinkers of the modern age to postulate the potentials of artificial life, separate from [[artificial intelligence]], was math and computer prodigy [[John von Neumann]]. At the [[Hixon Symposium]], hosted by [[Linus Pauling]] in [[Pasadena, California]] in the late 1940s, von Neumann delivered a lecture titled "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." He defined an "automaton" as any machine whose behavior proceeded logically from step to step by combining information from the environment and its own programming, and said that natural organisms would in the end be found to follow similar simple rules. He also spoke about the idea of [[self-replicating machine]]s. He postulated a machine – a [[kinematic automaton]] – made up of a control computer, a construction arm, and a long series of instructions, floating in a lake of parts. By following the instructions that were part of its own body, it could create an identical machine. He followed this idea by creating (with [[Stanislaw Ulam]]) a purely logic-based automaton, not requiring a physical body but based on the changing states of the cells in an infinite grid – the first [[cellular automaton]]. It was extraordinarily complicated compared to later CAs, having hundreds of thousands of cells which could each exist in one of twenty-nine states, but von Neumann felt he needed the complexity in order for it to function not just as a self-replicating "machine", but also as a [[universal computer]] as defined by [[Alan Turing]]. This "[[Von Neumann universal constructor|universal constructor]]" read from a tape of instructions and wrote out a series of cells that could then be made active to leave a fully functional copy of the original machine and its tape. Von Neumann worked on his [[automata theory]] intensively right up to his death, and considered it his most important work.
One of the earliest thinkers of the modern age to postulate the potentials of artificial life, separate from artificial intelligence, was math and computer prodigy John von Neumann. At the Hixon Symposium, hosted by Linus Pauling in Pasadena, California in the late 1940s, von Neumann delivered a lecture titled "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." He defined an "automaton" as any machine whose behavior proceeded logically from step to step by combining information from the environment and its own programming, and said that natural organisms would in the end be found to follow similar simple rules. He also spoke about the idea of self-replicating machines. He postulated a machine – a kinematic automaton – made up of a control computer, a construction arm, and a long series of instructions, floating in a lake of parts. By following the instructions that were part of its own body, it could create an identical machine. He followed this idea by creating (with Stanislaw Ulam) a purely logic-based automaton, not requiring a physical body but based on the changing states of the cells in an infinite grid – the first cellular automaton. It was extraordinarily complicated compared to later CAs, having hundreds of thousands of cells which could each exist in one of twenty-nine states, but von Neumann felt he needed the complexity in order for it to function not just as a self-replicating "machine", but also as a universal computer as defined by Alan Turing. This "universal constructor" read from a tape of instructions and wrote out a series of cells that could then be made active to leave a fully functional copy of the original machine and its tape. Von Neumann worked on his automata theory intensively right up to his death, and considered it his most important work.
现代最早的思想家之一，假定人工生命的潜力，从人工智能分离出来，是数学和计算机神童约翰·冯·诺伊曼。上世纪40年代末，在加利福尼亚州帕萨迪纳市由莱纳斯 · 鲍林主持的 Hixon 研讨会上，冯 · 诺依曼发表了题为“自动机的一般和逻辑理论”的演讲他将“自动机”定义为任何一种机器，它的行为通过将来自环境的信息和自身的编程结合起来，从逻辑上一步一步地进行，并说自然界的有机体最终会被发现遵循类似的简单规则。他还谈到了自我复制机器的想法。他假设了一个机器——一个运动学自动机——由一个控制计算机、一个结构臂和一系列的指令组成，漂浮在零件的湖中。通过遵循它自己身体的一部分的指令，它可以创造一个完全相同的机器。他遵循这个想法，与 Stanislaw Ulam 一起创造了一个纯粹基于逻辑的自动机，不需要物理身体，而是基于无限网格中细胞状态的变化——第一个细胞自动机。与后来的 ca 相比，它非常复杂，拥有成千上万的细胞，每个细胞可以存在于29个状态中的一个，但冯 · 诺依曼觉得他需要这种复杂性，以便它不仅能够作为一台自我复制的“机器” ，而且能够作为一台由阿兰 · 图灵定义的通用计算机运行。这个“通用构造函数”读取指令磁带，并写出一系列单元格，这些单元格可以被激活，从而留下原始机器及其磁带的功能齐全的副本。冯 · 诺依曼一直致力于他的自动机理论，直到他去世，并认为这是他最重要的工作。
[[Homer Jacobson]] illustrated basic self-replication in the 1950s with a model train set – a seed "organism" consisting of a "head" and "tail" boxcar could use the simple rules of the system to consistently create new "organisms" identical to itself, so long as there was a random pool of new boxcars to draw from.
Homer Jacobson illustrated basic self-replication in the 1950s with a model train set – a seed "organism" consisting of a "head" and "tail" boxcar could use the simple rules of the system to consistently create new "organisms" identical to itself, so long as there was a random pool of new boxcars to draw from.
荷马 · 雅各布森在20世纪50年代用一个火车模型为《自我复制画了插图——一个由“头”和“尾”组成的种子“有机体”可以利用这个系统的简单规则，一致地创造出与自身相同的新“有机体” ，只要有一个随机的新货车车厢池可以利用。
[[Edward F. Moore]] proposed "Artificial Living Plants", which would be floating factories which could create copies of themselves. They could be programmed to perform some function (extracting fresh water, harvesting minerals from seawater) for an investment that would be relatively small compared to the huge returns from the exponentially growing numbers of factories. [[Freeman Dyson]] also studied the idea, envisioning self-replicating machines sent to explore and exploit other planets and moons, and a NASA group called the Self-Replicating Systems Concept Team performed a 1980 study on the feasibility of a self-building lunar factory.
Edward F. Moore proposed "Artificial Living Plants", which would be floating factories which could create copies of themselves. They could be programmed to perform some function (extracting fresh water, harvesting minerals from seawater) for an investment that would be relatively small compared to the huge returns from the exponentially growing numbers of factories. Freeman Dyson also studied the idea, envisioning self-replicating machines sent to explore and exploit other planets and moons, and a NASA group called the Self-Replicating Systems Concept Team performed a 1980 study on the feasibility of a self-building lunar factory.
爱德华 · f · 摩尔(edwardf.Moore)提出了“人造活植物”的概念，这种植物是漂浮的工厂，它们可以创造自己的复制品。可以对它们进行程序设计，让它们发挥某些功能(提取淡水、从海水中获取矿物质) ，相对于工厂数量呈指数增长所带来的巨大回报而言，这笔投资相对较小。弗里曼 · 戴森也研究了这个想法，设想了自我复制的机器被送去探索和开发其他行星和卫星，美国宇航局的一个团队称为自我复制系统概念小组在1980年进行了一项关于自我建造月球工厂可行性的研究。
University of Cambridge professor [[John Horton Conway]] invented the most famous cellular automaton in the 1960s. He called it the [[Conway's Game of Life|Game of Life]], and publicized it through [[Martin Gardner]]'s column in ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine.
University of Cambridge professor John Horton Conway invented the most famous cellular automaton in the 1960s. He called it the Game of Life, and publicized it through Martin Gardner's column in Scientific American magazine.
20世纪60年代，剑桥大学教授约翰·何顿·康威发明了最著名的细胞自动机。他称之为生命的游戏，并通过马丁 · 加德纳在《科学美国人》杂志上的专栏宣传这个游戏。
==1970s–1980s==
Philosophy scholar [[Arthur Burks]], who had worked with von Neumann (and indeed, organized his papers after Neumann's death), headed the Logic of Computers Group at the [[University of Michigan]]. He brought the overlooked views of 19th century American thinker [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] into the modern age. Peirce was a strong believer that all of nature's workings were based on logic (though not always deductive logic). The Michigan group was one of the few groups still interested in alife and CAs in the early 1970s; one of its students, [[Tommaso Toffoli]] argued in his PhD thesis that the field was important because its results explain the simple rules that underlay complex effects in nature. Toffoli later provided a key proof that CAs were [[Reversible computing|reversible]], just as the true universe is considered to be.
Philosophy scholar Arthur Burks, who had worked with von Neumann (and indeed, organized his papers after Neumann's death), headed the Logic of Computers Group at the University of Michigan. He brought the overlooked views of 19th century American thinker Charles Sanders Peirce into the modern age. Peirce was a strong believer that all of nature's workings were based on logic (though not always deductive logic). The Michigan group was one of the few groups still interested in alife and CAs in the early 1970s; one of its students, Tommaso Toffoli argued in his PhD thesis that the field was important because its results explain the simple rules that underlay complex effects in nature. Toffoli later provided a key proof that CAs were reversible, just as the true universe is considered to be.
哲学学者 Arthur Burks，曾与 von Neumann 共事(事实上，在 Neumann 死后组织了他的论文) ，领导了密歇根大学的计算机逻辑小组。他把19世纪美国思想家查尔斯·桑德斯·皮尔士的被忽视的观点带到了现代。皮尔斯坚信自然界所有的运作都是基于逻辑的(尽管并不总是演绎逻辑)。在20世纪70年代早期，密歇根大学的研究小组是少数几个仍对生命和复杂自然环境感兴趣的小组之一; 该小组的一名学生托马索 · 托福利在他的博士论文中指出，这个领域很重要，因为它的结果解释了自然界复杂效应背后的简单规则。托福利后来提供了一个关键的证据，证明了 ca 是可逆的，就像真正的宇宙被认为是可逆的一样。
[[Christopher Langton]] was an unconventional researcher, with an undistinguished academic career that led him to a job programming [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] mainframes for a hospital. He became enthralled by Conway's Game of Life, and began pursuing the idea that the computer could emulate living creatures. After years of study (and a near-fatal hang-gliding accident), he began attempting to actualize Von Neumann's CA and the work of [[Edgar F. Codd]], who had simplified Von Neumann's original twenty-nine state monster to one with only eight states. He succeeded in creating the first self-replicating computer organism in October 1979, using only an [[Apple II]] desktop computer. He entered Burks' graduate program at the Logic of Computers Group in 1982, at the age of 33, and helped to found a new discipline.
Christopher Langton was an unconventional researcher, with an undistinguished academic career that led him to a job programming DEC mainframes for a hospital. He became enthralled by Conway's Game of Life, and began pursuing the idea that the computer could emulate living creatures. After years of study (and a near-fatal hang-gliding accident), he began attempting to actualize Von Neumann's CA and the work of Edgar F. Codd, who had simplified Von Neumann's original twenty-nine state monster to one with only eight states. He succeeded in creating the first self-replicating computer organism in October 1979, using only an Apple II desktop computer. He entered Burks' graduate program at the Logic of Computers Group in 1982, at the age of 33, and helped to found a new discipline.
克里斯托弗·兰顿是一位非传统的研究员，他平庸的学术生涯导致他在一家医院的 DEC 主机上编写程序。他被康威的《生命的游戏》迷住了，并开始追求计算机可以模仿生物的想法。经过多年的研究(以及一次几乎致命的悬挂滑翔事故) ，他开始尝试实现冯 · 诺依曼的 CA 和埃德加 · f · 科德的工作，后者将冯 · 诺依曼最初的29个状态的怪物简化为只有8个状态的怪物。1979年10月，他只用一台苹果 II 型台式电脑就成功地创造出了第一台可自我复制的电脑机体。1982年，33岁的他参加了伯克斯在计算机逻辑集团的研究生课程，并帮助建立了一个新的学科。
Langton's official conference announcement of Artificial Life I was the earliest description of a field which had previously barely existed:<ref>Langton, C.G. (1989) "Artificial Life", in ''Artificial Life'', Langton (ed), (Addison-Wesley:Reading, MA) page 1.</ref>
Langton's official conference announcement of Artificial Life I was the earliest description of a field which had previously barely existed:
兰顿在官方会议上宣布的《人工生命 i 》是对一个以前几乎不存在的领域的最早描述:
<blockquote>''Artificial life is the study of artificial systems that exhibit behavior characteristic of natural living systems. It is the quest to explain life in any of its possible manifestations, without restriction to the particular examples that have evolved on earth. This includes biological and chemical experiments, computer simulations, and purely theoretical endeavors. Processes occurring on molecular, social, and evolutionary scales are subject to investigation. The ultimate goal is to extract the logical form of living systems.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>Artificial life is the study of artificial systems that exhibit behavior characteristic of natural living systems. It is the quest to explain life in any of its possible manifestations, without restriction to the particular examples that have evolved on earth. This includes biological and chemical experiments, computer simulations, and purely theoretical endeavors. Processes occurring on molecular, social, and evolutionary scales are subject to investigation. The ultimate goal is to extract the logical form of living systems.</blockquote>
人工生命是研究表现出自然生命系统行为特征的人工系统。它寻求解释生命的任何可能表现形式，而不局限于地球上演化出来的特殊例子。这包括生物和化学实验，计算机模拟，和纯理论的努力。在分子、社会和进化尺度上发生的过程需要进行调查。最终目标是提取出生命系统的逻辑形式
<blockquote>''Microelectronic technology and genetic engineering will soon give us the capability to create new life forms ''in silico'' as well as ''in vitro''. This capacity will present humanity with the most far-reaching technical, theoretical and ethical challenges it has ever confronted. The time seems appropriate for a gathering of those involved in attempts to simulate or synthesize aspects of living systems.''</blockquote>
<blockquote>Microelectronic technology and genetic engineering will soon give us the capability to create new life forms in silico as well as in vitro. This capacity will present humanity with the most far-reaching technical, theoretical and ethical challenges it has ever confronted. The time seems appropriate for a gathering of those involved in attempts to simulate or synthesize aspects of living systems.</blockquote>
微电子技术和基因工程将很快赋予我们在电子和体外创造新生命形式的能力。这种能力将给人类带来有史以来最深远的技术、理论和伦理挑战。这个时间似乎适合于那些试图模拟或综合生命系统各个方面的人们的聚会
[[Ed Fredkin]] founded the Information Mechanics Group at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], which united Toffoli, [[Norman Margolus]], [[Gerard Vichniac]], and [[Charles H. Bennett (computer scientist)|Charles Bennett]]. This group created a computer especially designed to execute cellular automata, eventually reducing it to the size of a single circuit board. This "cellular automata machine" allowed an explosion of alife research among scientists who could not otherwise afford sophisticated computers.
Ed Fredkin founded the Information Mechanics Group at MIT, which united Toffoli, Norman Margolus, Gerard Vichniac, and Charles Bennett. This group created a computer especially designed to execute cellular automata, eventually reducing it to the size of a single circuit board. This "cellular automata machine" allowed an explosion of alife research among scientists who could not otherwise afford sophisticated computers.
艾德 · 弗雷德金在麻省理工学院创立了信息机械集团，该集团将 Toffoli、诺曼 · 马戈卢斯、杰拉德 · 维克尼亚克和查尔斯 · 贝内特联合在一起。这个小组创造了一台专门用来执行细胞自动机的计算机，最终把它缩小到一块电路板的大小。这种“细胞自动机机器”使得本来买不起复杂计算机的科学家们能够进行大量的生活研究。
In 1982, computer scientist named [[Stephen Wolfram]] turned his attention to cellular automata. He explored and categorized the types of [[complexity]] displayed by one-dimensional CAs, and showed how they applied to natural phenomena such as the patterns of seashells and the nature of plant growth.
In 1982, computer scientist named Stephen Wolfram turned his attention to cellular automata. He explored and categorized the types of complexity displayed by one-dimensional CAs, and showed how they applied to natural phenomena such as the patterns of seashells and the nature of plant growth.
1982年，计算机科学家斯蒂芬 · 沃尔夫勒姆把注意力转向了细胞自动机。他研究并分类了单维 ca 所显示的复杂性类型，并展示了它们如何应用于自然现象，如贝壳的图案和植物生长的性质。
[[Norman Packard]], who worked with Wolfram at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], used CAs to simulate the growth of snowflakes, following very basic rules.
Norman Packard, who worked with Wolfram at the Institute for Advanced Study, used CAs to simulate the growth of snowflakes, following very basic rules.
诺曼 · 帕卡德在高级研究所与沃尔夫拉姆合作，他使用 ca 模拟雪花的生长，遵循非常基本的规则。
Computer animator [[Craig Reynolds (computer graphics)|Craig Reynolds]] similarly used three simple rules to create recognizable [[Flocking (behavior)|flocking]] behaviour in a [[Boids|computer program]] in 1987 to animate groups of boids. With no top-down programming at all, the boids produced lifelike solutions to evading obstacles placed in their path. [[Computer animation]] has continued to be a key commercial driver of alife research as the creators of [[Film|movie]]s attempt to find more realistic and inexpensive ways to animate natural forms such as plant life, animal movement, hair growth, and complicated organic textures.
Computer animator Craig Reynolds similarly used three simple rules to create recognizable flocking behaviour in a computer program in 1987 to animate groups of boids. With no top-down programming at all, the boids produced lifelike solutions to evading obstacles placed in their path. Computer animation has continued to be a key commercial driver of alife research as the creators of movies attempt to find more realistic and inexpensive ways to animate natural forms such as plant life, animal movement, hair growth, and complicated organic textures.
1987年，计算机动画师克雷格 · 雷诺兹同样使用三个简单的规则在一个计算机程序中创建了可识别的植物群集行为。由于根本没有自上而下的节目，博伊德夫妇为躲避前进道路上的障碍，提供了栩栩如生的解决方案。电脑动画一直是人生研究的主要商业驱动力，因为电影的创作者们试图找到更加现实和廉价的方法来使自然形式如植物、动物运动、毛发生长和复杂的有机材质等具有生命力。
[[J. Doyne Farmer]] was a key figure in tying artificial life research to the emerging field of [[complex adaptive system]]s, working at the [[Center for Nonlinear Studies]] (a basic research section of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]), just as its star chaos theorist [[Mitchell Feigenbaum]] was leaving. Farmer and Norman Packard chaired a conference in May 1985 called "Evolution, Games, and Learning", which was to presage many of the topics of later alife conferences.
J. Doyne Farmer was a key figure in tying artificial life research to the emerging field of complex adaptive systems, working at the Center for Nonlinear Studies (a basic research section of Los Alamos National Laboratory), just as its star chaos theorist Mitchell Feigenbaum was leaving. Farmer and Norman Packard chaired a conference in May 1985 called "Evolution, Games, and Learning", which was to presage many of the topics of later alife conferences.
是将人工生命研究与复杂适应系统这一新兴领域联系起来的关键人物，他在非线性研究中心(洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室的基础研究部门)工作，就在其明星混沌理论家米切尔·费根鲍姆离开的时候。1985年5月，法默和诺曼 · 帕卡德主持了一次名为“进化、游戏和学习”的会议，这次会议预示了后来人生会议的许多主题。
==2000s==
On the ecological front, research regarding the evolution of animal cooperative behavior (started by [[W. D. Hamilton]] in the 1960s <ref>Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II. J. Theor.
On the ecological front, research regarding the evolution of animal cooperative behavior (started by W. D. Hamilton in the 1960s <ref>Hamilton, W. D. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I and II. J. Theor.
在生态学方面，对动物合作行为进化的研究(由汉密尔顿于20世纪60年代开始，文献记载为汉密尔顿。 社会行为的遗传进化。I 及 II。J. Theor.
Biol. 7, 1–52 (1964).</ref><ref>Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211,
Biol. 7, 1–52 (1964).</ref><ref>Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, W. D. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211,
Biol.7,1-52(1964) . / ref Axelrod，r. & Hamilton，W.d. 合作的演变。科学211,
1390–1396 (1981).</ref> resulting in theories of kin selection, reciprocity, multilevel selection and cultural group selection) was re-introduced via artificial life by [[Peter Turchin]] and Mikhail Burtsev in 2006. Previously, [[game theory]] has been utilized in similar investigation, however, that approach was deemed to be rather limiting in its amount of possible strategies and debatable set of payoff rules. The alife model designed here, instead, is based upon [[Conway's Game of Life]] but with much added complexity (there are over 10<sup>1000</sup> strategies that can potentially emerge). Most significantly, the interacting agents are characterized by external phenotype markers which allows for recognition amongst in-group members. In effect, it is shown that given the capacity to perceive these markers, agents within the system are then able to evolve new group behaviors under minimalistic assumptions. On top of the already known strategies of the bourgeois-[[hawk-dove game]], here two novel modes of cooperative attack and defense arise from the simulation.
1390–1396 (1981).</ref> resulting in theories of kin selection, reciprocity, multilevel selection and cultural group selection) was re-introduced via artificial life by Peter Turchin and Mikhail Burtsev in 2006. Previously, game theory has been utilized in similar investigation, however, that approach was deemed to be rather limiting in its amount of possible strategies and debatable set of payoff rules. The alife model designed here, instead, is based upon Conway's Game of Life but with much added complexity (there are over 10<sup>1000</sup> strategies that can potentially emerge). Most significantly, the interacting agents are characterized by external phenotype markers which allows for recognition amongst in-group members. In effect, it is shown that given the capacity to perceive these markers, agents within the system are then able to evolve new group behaviors under minimalistic assumptions. On top of the already known strategies of the bourgeois-hawk-dove game, here two novel modes of cooperative attack and defense arise from the simulation.
1390-1396(1981). 2006年，Peter Turchin 和 Mikhail Burtsev 通过人工生命重新引入了亲缘选择、互惠、多层选择和文化群选择等理论。在此之前，博弈论被用于类似的研究，但是这种方法被认为在可能策略的数量和有争议的支付规则集方面是相当有限的。这里设计的生命模型是基于 Conway 的生命游戏，但是增加了很多复杂性(有超过10个 sup 1000 / sup 策略可能出现)。最重要的是，相互作用的代理人是拥有属性的外部表型标记，它允许在组内成员之间的识别。实际上，研究表明，给予感知这些标记的能力，系统内的代理人就能够在最简假设下进化出新的群体行为。在已知的资产阶级-鹰派-鸽派对策策略之上，这里有两种新颖的合作攻击和防御模式从模拟中产生。
For the setup, this two-dimensional artificial world is divided into cells, each empty or containing a resource bundle. An empty cell can acquire a resource bundle with a certain probability per unit of time and lose it when an agent consumes the resource. Each agent is plainly constructed with a set of receptors, effectors (the components that govern the agents' behavior), and neural net which connect the two. In response to the environment, an agent may rest, eat, reproduce by division, move, turn and attack. All actions{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} <!--is this true? (see next comment)--> expend energy taken from its internal energy storage; once that is depleted, the agent dies. Consumption of resource, as well as other agents after defeating them, yields an increase <!--or should this say "a net increase"?--> in the energy storage. Reproduction is modeled as being asexual while the offspring receive half the parental energy. Agents are also equipped with sensory inputs that allow them to detect resources or other members within a parameter{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} in addition to its own level of vitality. As for the phenotype markers, they do not influence behavior but solely function as indicator of 'genetic' similarity. Heredity is achieved by having the relevant information be inherited by the offspring and subjected to a set rate of mutation.
For the setup, this two-dimensional artificial world is divided into cells, each empty or containing a resource bundle. An empty cell can acquire a resource bundle with a certain probability per unit of time and lose it when an agent consumes the resource. Each agent is plainly constructed with a set of receptors, effectors (the components that govern the agents' behavior), and neural net which connect the two. In response to the environment, an agent may rest, eat, reproduce by division, move, turn and attack. All actions <!--is this true? (see next comment)--> expend energy taken from its internal energy storage; once that is depleted, the agent dies. Consumption of resource, as well as other agents after defeating them, yields an increase <!--or should this say "a net increase"?--> in the energy storage. Reproduction is modeled as being asexual while the offspring receive half the parental energy. Agents are also equipped with sensory inputs that allow them to detect resources or other members within a parameter in addition to its own level of vitality. As for the phenotype markers, they do not influence behavior but solely function as indicator of 'genetic' similarity. Heredity is achieved by having the relevant information be inherited by the offspring and subjected to a set rate of mutation.
对于这个设置，这个二维的人工世界被划分为个单元，每个单元为空或包含一个资源包。一个空单元可以获得单位时间内一定概率的资源包，并在代理消耗该资源时丢失它。每个代理明显构建了一套受体，效应器(控制代理的行为的组成部分)和神经网络连接两者。作为对环境的反应，代理人可以通过分裂休息、进食、繁殖、移动、转向和攻击。所有的行动! ——这是真的吗？(见下一条评论)——从其内部能量储存中消耗能量; 一旦耗尽，该物质就死亡。资源的消耗，以及在击败它们之后的其他代理人，产生能量储存的增加! ——或者应该说“净增加” 。生殖被认为是无性繁殖，而后代则接收到双亲一半的能量。代理还配备了感官输入，使他们能够发现资源或其他成员的参数除了自己的活力水平。至于表型标记，它们不影响行为，而只是作为“遗传”相似性的指标。遗传是通过让后代继承相关信息并经历一定的突变率来实现的。
The objective of the investigation is to study how the presence of phenotype markers affects the model's range of evolving cooperative strategies. In addition, as the resource available in this 2D environment is capped, the simulation also serves to determine the effect of environmental carrying capacity on their emergence.
The objective of the investigation is to study how the presence of phenotype markers affects the model's range of evolving cooperative strategies. In addition, as the resource available in this 2D environment is capped, the simulation also serves to determine the effect of environmental carrying capacity on their emergence.
本研究旨在探讨表型标记的存在对模型合作策略演化范围的影响。此外，由于在这个二维环境中可用的资源是有限的，模拟也服务于确定环境承载力对它们的涌现的影响。
One previously unseen strategy is termed the "raven". These agents leave cells with in-group members, thus avoiding intra-specific competition, and attack out-group members voluntarily. Another strategy, named the 'starling', involves the agent sharing cells with in-group members. Despite individuals having smaller energy storage due to resource partitioning, this strategy permits highly effective defense against large invaders via the advantage in numbers. Ecologically speaking, this resembles the [[mobbing behavior]] that characterizes many species of small birds when they collectively defend against the predator.
One previously unseen strategy is termed the "raven". These agents leave cells with in-group members, thus avoiding intra-specific competition, and attack out-group members voluntarily. Another strategy, named the 'starling', involves the agent sharing cells with in-group members. Despite individuals having smaller energy storage due to resource partitioning, this strategy permits highly effective defense against large invaders via the advantage in numbers. Ecologically speaking, this resembles the mobbing behavior that characterizes many species of small birds when they collectively defend against the predator.
一种前所未见的策略被称为“乌鸦”。这些代理离开与组内成员细胞，从而避免内部特定的竞争，并攻击组外成员自愿。另一种策略称为“ starling” ，涉及代理与组内成员共享单元。尽管由于资源分割，个人拥有较小的能量存储，这种策略允许通过数字优势对大型入侵者进行高效的防御。从生态学的角度来说，这类似于许多小型鸟类在集体防御捕食者时所具有的聚众滋扰行为。
In conclusion, the research claims that the simulated results have important implications for the evolution of [[territoriality (ethology)|territoriality]] by showing that within the alife framework it is possible to "model not only how one strategy displaces another, but also the very process by which new strategies emerge from a large quantity of possibilities".<ref>Burtsev M, Turchin P. 2006. Evolution of cooperative strategies from first principles. Nature</ref>
In conclusion, the research claims that the simulated results have important implications for the evolution of territoriality by showing that within the alife framework it is possible to "model not only how one strategy displaces another, but also the very process by which new strategies emerge from a large quantity of possibilities".
最后，研究声称，模拟结果对地域性的演变具有重要意义，因为它表明，在生命框架内，不仅可以“模拟一种战略如何取代另一种战略，而且可以模拟从大量可能性中产生新战略的过程”。
Work is also underway to create [[computational biomodeling|cellular models of artificial life]]. Initial work on building a complete biochemical model of cellular behavior is underway as part of a number of different research projects, namely [[Blue Gene]] which seeks to understand the mechanisms behind [[protein folding]].
Work is also underway to create cellular models of artificial life. Initial work on building a complete biochemical model of cellular behavior is underway as part of a number of different research projects, namely Blue Gene which seeks to understand the mechanisms behind protein folding.
创建人工生命细胞模型的工作也在进行中。建立一个完整的细胞行为生化模型的初步工作正在进行中，这是许多不同研究项目的一部分，即蓝色基因，该项目旨在了解蛋白质折叠背后的机制。
== See also ==
* [[Automaton]]
* [[Clanking replicator]]
* [[Cellular automaton]]
==References==
<references />
==External links==
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014). The past, present, and future of artificial life. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 1(8). https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014). The past, present, and future of artificial life. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 1(8). https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
Aguilar, W., Santamaría-Bonfil, G., Froese, T., and Gershenson, C. (2014).人工生命的过去、现在和未来。机器人和人工智能的前沿，1(8)。Https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2014.00008
[[Category:Artificial life]]
Category:Artificial life
类别: 人工生命
[[Category:History of biology|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
[[Category:History of technology|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
[[Category:History of artificial intelligence|Artificial life, history of]]
Artificial life, history of
人工生命的历史
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:History of artificial life]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[人工生命历史/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
[[Category:待整理页面]]