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===生物===
 
===生物===
[[File:Birds_flocking.png|300px|thumb|鸟类蜂群,生物学中的自我组织的一个例子|right]]
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[[File:1024px-Sort_sol_ved_Ørnsø_2007.jpg|300px|thumb|鸟类蜂群,生物学中的自我组织的一个例子|right]]
 
在生物学中<ref>Camazine, Deneubourg, Franks, Sneyd, Theraulaz, Bonabeau, ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems'', [[Princeton University|Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-11624-5}}</ref>,从蛋白质和其它生物大分子的'''自发折叠 Spontaneous folding''','''磷脂双分子层 Lipid bilayer '''的形成,发育生物学的'''图案形成 Pattern formation'''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis''',人体运动的协调,群居昆虫 如蜜蜂,蚂蚁,白蚁<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bonabeau|first1=Eric |display-authors=etal |title=Self-organization in social insects|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|date=May 1997|volume=12|issue=5|pages=188–93|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01048-3|pmid=21238030 |url=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/19269/1/020BonabeauTrendsEcologyEvolution97.pdf }}</ref> 和哺乳动物的社会行为,到鸟类和鱼类的'''群集行为 Flocking behaviour''',都可以观察到自组织现象。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Couzin |first1=Iain D. |last2=Krause |first2=Jens |title=Self-Organization and Collective Behavior in Vertebrates |journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior |date=2003 |volume=32 |pages=1–75 |url=http://icouzin.princeton.edu/wp-content/uploads/file/PDFs/Couzin%20and%20Krause,%202003.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220075600/http://icouzin.princeton.edu/wp-content/uploads/file/PDFs/Couzin%20and%20Krause,%202003.pdf |archivedate=2016-12-20|doi=10.1016/S0065-3454(03)01001-5 |isbn=9780120045327 }}</ref>
 
在生物学中<ref>Camazine, Deneubourg, Franks, Sneyd, Theraulaz, Bonabeau, ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems'', [[Princeton University|Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-11624-5}}</ref>,从蛋白质和其它生物大分子的'''自发折叠 Spontaneous folding''','''磷脂双分子层 Lipid bilayer '''的形成,发育生物学的'''图案形成 Pattern formation'''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis''',人体运动的协调,群居昆虫 如蜜蜂,蚂蚁,白蚁<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bonabeau|first1=Eric |display-authors=etal |title=Self-organization in social insects|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|date=May 1997|volume=12|issue=5|pages=188–93|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01048-3|pmid=21238030 |url=https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/19269/1/020BonabeauTrendsEcologyEvolution97.pdf }}</ref> 和哺乳动物的社会行为,到鸟类和鱼类的'''群集行为 Flocking behaviour''',都可以观察到自组织现象。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Couzin |first1=Iain D. |last2=Krause |first2=Jens |title=Self-Organization and Collective Behavior in Vertebrates |journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior |date=2003 |volume=32 |pages=1–75 |url=http://icouzin.princeton.edu/wp-content/uploads/file/PDFs/Couzin%20and%20Krause,%202003.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220075600/http://icouzin.princeton.edu/wp-content/uploads/file/PDFs/Couzin%20and%20Krause,%202003.pdf |archivedate=2016-12-20|doi=10.1016/S0065-3454(03)01001-5 |isbn=9780120045327 }}</ref>
       
数学生物学家斯图尔特·考夫曼 Stuart Kauffman 和其他结构主义者认为,自组织可能与自然选择在进化生物学的三个领域中共同发挥作用,即'''种群动力学  Population dynamics''','''分子进化 Molecular evolution '''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis'''。但是,这种假设没有考虑能量在驱动细胞中生化反应中的重要作用。任何细胞中的反应系统都是'''自催化 Self-catalyzing'''的,但不是简单的自组织,因为它们是依赖于持续能量输入的热力学开放系统。自组织不是自然选择的替代方法,但是它限制了进化可以做什么,并提供了诸如膜的自组装之类的机制,以便进化利用这种机制。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–99 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Goodwin, Brian |authorlink=Brian Goodwin |title=Beyond the Darwinian Paradigm: Understanding Biological Forms |work=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |editor1=Ruse, Michael |editor1link=Michael Ruse |editor2=Travis, Joseph |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2009}}</ref> Self-organization is not an alternative to natural selection, but it constrains what evolution can do and provides mechanisms such as the self-assembly of membranes which evolution then exploits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Brian R. |last2=Lam |first2=Sheung Kwam |title=Self-organization, Natural Selection, and Evolution: Cellular Hardware and Genetic Software |journal=BioScience |date=2010|volume=60 |issue=11 |pages=879–85 |doi=10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.4 |url=http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/11/879.full}}</ref>
 
数学生物学家斯图尔特·考夫曼 Stuart Kauffman 和其他结构主义者认为,自组织可能与自然选择在进化生物学的三个领域中共同发挥作用,即'''种群动力学  Population dynamics''','''分子进化 Molecular evolution '''和'''形态发生 Morphogenesis'''。但是,这种假设没有考虑能量在驱动细胞中生化反应中的重要作用。任何细胞中的反应系统都是'''自催化 Self-catalyzing'''的,但不是简单的自组织,因为它们是依赖于持续能量输入的热力学开放系统。自组织不是自然选择的替代方法,但是它限制了进化可以做什么,并提供了诸如膜的自组装之类的机制,以便进化利用这种机制。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Ronald F. |title=Review of Stuart Kauffman, The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution |journal=Biophys. J. |date=December 1993 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=2698–99 |pmc=1226010 |doi=10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 |bibcode=1993BpJ....65.2698F}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Goodwin, Brian |authorlink=Brian Goodwin |title=Beyond the Darwinian Paradigm: Understanding Biological Forms |work=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |editor1=Ruse, Michael |editor1link=Michael Ruse |editor2=Travis, Joseph |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2009}}</ref> Self-organization is not an alternative to natural selection, but it constrains what evolution can do and provides mechanisms such as the self-assembly of membranes which evolution then exploits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Brian R. |last2=Lam |first2=Sheung Kwam |title=Self-organization, Natural Selection, and Evolution: Cellular Hardware and Genetic Software |journal=BioScience |date=2010|volume=60 |issue=11 |pages=879–85 |doi=10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.4 |url=http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/11/879.full}}</ref>
      
===计算机科学===
 
===计算机科学===
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