社会化

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25px  此article介紹的是the sociological concept。For other uses, see Socialization (disambiguation).

模板:Use American English

模板:Sociology In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".[1]:5[2]



In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialisation and Society, Boston: Little Brown and Company

在社会学中，社会化是社会规范和意识形态内化的过程。社会化既包括学习也包括教学，因此是“实现社会和文化连续性的手段”。克劳森，约翰 · A。(教育)(1968)《社会化与社会》 ，波士顿: 利特尔布朗公司

Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.[3] Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.[4]

Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology.Billingham, M. (2007) Sociological Perspectives p.336 In Stretch, B. and Whitehouse, M. (eds.) (2007) Health and Social Care Book 1. Oxford: Heinemann. Humans need social experiences to learn their culture and to survive.Macionis, John J., and Linda M. Gerber. Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada, 2011. Print.

社会化与发展心理学密切相关。(编者注)☆(2007)健康与社会关怀第一册。牛津: 海涅曼。人类需要社会经验来学习他们的文化和生存。社会学。多伦多: 皮尔森加拿大分公司，2011年。打印。

Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.[5][6]

Socialization essentially represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.MLA Style: "socialization." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Student and Home Edition. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010.

社会化本质上代表了整个生命过程中学习的整个过程，对成年人和儿童的行为、信仰和行为都有重要影响Encyclopædia Britannica.大英百科全书学生和家庭版。芝加哥: 大英百科全书，2010。

Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by their environment;[7] scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and genes.[8][9][10][11]

Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by their environment;Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences and genes.Dusheck, Jennie, "The Interpretation of Genes". Natural History, October 2002.Carlson, N.R.; et al. (2005) Psychology: the science of behavior. Pearson (3rd Canadian edition). .Ridley, M. (2003) Nature Via Nurture: Genes, Experience, and What Makes us Human. Harper Collins. .Westen, D. (2002) Psychology: Brain, Behavior & Culture. Wiley & Sons. .

社会化可能导致令人满意的结果ーー有时被称为“道德”ーー就其发生的社会而言。个人观点受到社会共识的影响，通常倾向于社会认为可接受或“正常”的东西。社会化仅仅为人类的信仰和行为提供了部分的解释，认为个体不是由他们的环境预先决定的白板。白纸黑字。纽约: 企鹅出版社，2002年。科学研究提供的证据表明，社会影响和基因共同塑造了人。杜塞克，珍妮，“基因的解释”。自然历史，2002年10月，北卡罗来纳州卡尔森。等人。(2005)心理学: 行为科学。Pearson (3rd Canadian edition).(2003)自然通过培养: 基因，经验，和什么使我们成为人类。Harper Collins.(2002)心理学: 大脑，行为与文化。Wiley & Sons..

Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with their genotype to influence behavioral outcomes.[12]

Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with their genotype to influence behavioral outcomes.

遗传学研究表明，一个人的环境与他们的基因型相互作用，从而影响行为结果。

History

See also: History of sociology

Notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries.[1]:20 In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism.[13][14][15][16] Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization".[17] In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of association.[18] The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of Talcott Parsons.[19]


Notions of society and the state of nature have existed for centuries. In its earliest usages, socialization was simply the act of socializing or another word for socialism. Socialization as a concept originated concurrently with sociology, as sociology was defined as the treatment of "the specifically social, the process and forms of socialization, as such, in contrast to the interests and contents which find expression in socialization". In particular, socialization consisted of the formation and development of social groups, and also the development of a social state of mind in the individuals who associate. Socialization is thus both a cause and an effect of association. The term was relatively uncommon before 1940, but became popular after World War II, appearing in dictionaries and scholarly works such as the theory of Talcott Parsons.

社会和自然状态的概念已经存在了几个世纪。在最早的使用中，社会化仅仅是社会化的行为或社会主义的另一种说法。社会化作为一个与社会学同时产生的概念，社会学被定义为“特定的社会，社会化的过程和形式，与社会化所表达的利益和内容相对照”。特别是社会化包括社会群体的形成和发展，也包括交往个体社会心态的发展。因此，社会化既是交往的原因，也是交往的结果。这个术语在1940年以前相对不常见，但是在二战后流行起来，出现在字典和学术著作中，比如塔尔科特 · 帕森斯的理论。

Stages of moral development

Main article: Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.[20]


Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral reasoning and developed a theory of how individuals reason situations as right from wrong. The first stage is the pre-conventional stage, where a person (typically children) experience the world in terms of pain and pleasure, with their moral decisions solely reflecting this experience. Second, the conventional stage (typical for adolescents and adults) is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong, even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Finally, the post-conventional stage (more rarely achieved) occurs if a person moves beyond society's norms to consider abstract ethical principles when making moral decisions.Macionis, Gerber 2010 108

= = 道德发展的阶段 = = 劳伦斯·柯尔伯格研究道德推理，并发展出一套理论，说明个人如何判断情况是对是错。第一个阶段是前常规阶段，在这个阶段，一个人(通常是儿童)体验世界的痛苦和快乐，他们的道德决定只反映这种经验。其次，传统的阶段(青少年和成年人的典型拥有属性)是接受社会关于是非对错的公约，即使服从或不服从没有任何后果。最后，如果一个人在做出道德决定时超越社会规范，考虑抽象的伦理原则，就会出现后传统阶段(这种情况很少出现)。Macionis，Gerber 2010108

Stages of psychosocial development

Main article: Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight into life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair.[21] This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks".[22]


Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994) explained the challenges throughout the life course. The first stage in the life course is infancy, where babies learn trust and mistrust. The second stage is toddlerhood where children around the age of two struggle with the challenge of autonomy versus doubt. In stage three, preschool, children struggle to understand the difference between initiative and guilt. Stage four, pre-adolescence, children learn about industriousness and inferiority. In the fifth stage called adolescence, teenagers experience the challenge of gaining identity versus confusion. The sixth stage, young adulthood, is when young people gain insight into life when dealing with the challenge of intimacy and isolation. In stage seven, or middle adulthood, people experience the challenge of trying to make a difference (versus self-absorption). In the final stage, stage eight or old age, people are still learning about the challenge of integrity and despair. This concept has been further developed by Klaus Hurrelmann and Gudrun Quenzel using the dynamic model of "developmental tasks".Hurrelmann, Klaus and Quenzel, Gudrun (2019) Developmental Tasks in Adolescence. London/New York: Routledge

埃里克森(1902-1994)解释了贯穿一生的挑战。生命过程的第一阶段是婴儿期，婴儿在那里学会信任和不信任。第二阶段是蹒跚学步时期，两岁左右的孩子在自主性和怀疑之间挣扎。在幼儿园的第三阶段，孩子们很难理解主动性和负罪感之间的区别。第四阶段，青春期前，孩子们学习勤奋和自卑。在第五个阶段称为青春期，青少年经历了获得身份认同与困惑的挑战。第六个阶段，青年时期，是指年轻人在面对亲密和孤独的挑战时，对生活有了更深刻的认识。在第七阶段，或者成年中期，人们会经历尝试做出改变的挑战(相对于自我专注)。在最后阶段，即八岁或老年时，人们仍然在学习正直和绝望的挑战。这个概念由 Klaus Hurrelmann 和 Gudrun Quenzel 利用“发展任务”的动态模型进一步发展。Hurrelmann，Klaus and Quenzel，Gudrun (2019)《青春期的发展任务》。伦敦/纽约: Routledge

Behaviorism

See also: Reciprocal socialization

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other's point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others.[23]


George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience develops an individual's self-concept. Mead's central concept is the self: It is composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. Since social experience is the exchange of symbols, people tend to find meaning in every action. Seeking meaning leads us to imagine the intention of others. Understanding intention requires imagining the situation from the other's point of view. In effect, others are a mirror in which we can see ourselves. Charles Horton Cooley (1902-1983) coined the term looking glass self, which means self-image based on how we think others see us. According to Mead, the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. With limited social experience, infants can only develop a sense of identity through imitation. Gradually children learn to take the roles of several others. The final stage is the generalized other, which refers to widespread cultural norms and values we use as a reference for evaluating others.

= = 行为主义 = = 乔治·贺伯特·米德(1863-1931)发展了一套社会行为主义理论来解释社会经验如何发展个体的自我概念。米德的中心概念是自我: 它由自我意识和自我形象组成。米德声称自我不是在出生时就存在的，而是随着社会经验而发展起来的。由于社会经验是符号的交换，人们往往在每一个行动中找到意义。寻找意义使我们想象他人的意图。理解意图需要从他人的角度想象情况。实际上，他人是一面镜子，我们可以从中看到自己。查尔斯·库利(1902-1983)创造了“镜中自我”这个术语，意思是基于我们认为别人如何看待我们的自我形象。米德认为，发展自我的关键是学会扮演他人的角色。由于社会经验有限，婴儿只能通过模仿来培养身份认同感。渐渐地，孩子们学会扮演其他几个人的角色。最后一个阶段是广义的他者，指的是广泛的文化规范和价值观，我们用来作为评价他人的参考。

Contradictory evidence to behaviorism

Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that social behavior is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as prepared social beings.

Behaviorism makes claims that when infants are born they lack social experience or self. The social pre-wiring hypothesis, on the other hand, shows proof through a scientific study that social behavior is partly inherited and can influence infants and also even influence foetuses. Wired to be social means that infants are not taught that they are social beings, but they are born as prepared social beings.

= = 行为主义的矛盾证据 = = = 行为主义声称婴儿出生时缺乏社会经验或自我。另一方面，社会预先连线假说通过一项科学研究证明，社会行为是部分遗传的，可以影响婴儿，甚至影响胎儿。天生具有社会性意味着婴儿并没有被教导他们是社会性的人，而是作为有准备的社会性人出生的。

The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social.[24]

The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social". The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social.

社会预先连线假说是指社会互动的个体发生。也被非正式地称为“天生喜欢社交”。这一理论质疑是否存在一种在出生前就已经存在的以社会为导向的行为倾向。该理论的研究结论是，新生儿出生时具有独特的社交基因。

Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behavior and identity through genetics.[24]

Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns' behavior. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behavior cannot be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behavior and identity through genetics.

当检查新生儿的行为时，支持社会预先连线假说的间接证据就会显现出来。研究发现，新生儿甚至在出生后不到几个小时就表现出对社会交往的准备。这种准备是通过模仿他们的面部动作来表达的。这种被观察到的行为不能促成任何当前形式的社会化或社会建设。相反，新生儿很可能通过遗传在一定程度上继承了社会行为和身份认同。

Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins was not accidental but specifically aimed.[24]

Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining Twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviors that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin foetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten foetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin foetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins was not accidental but specifically aimed.

这一理论的主要证据是通过对双胞胎怀孕的研究发现的。主要的论点是，如果有社会行为是在出生前遗传和发展的，那么我们应该期望双胞胎胎儿在出生前参与某种形式的社会互动。因此，在一段时间内使用超声技术对10个胎儿进行了分析。利用运动学分析，实验的结果是，双胞胎相互作用的时间更长，更经常的怀孕进行下去。研究人员得出结论，同卵双胞胎之间运动的表现不是偶然的，而是特定的目的。

The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions."[24]

The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that 'social actions' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin foetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behavior: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin foetuses, other-directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self-directed actions."

社会预先布线假说被证明是正确的，“这项研究的核心进展是证明‘社会行为’已经在妊娠中期执行。从怀孕第14周开始，双胞胎计划并执行专门针对双胞胎的动作。这些发现迫使我们提前出现社会行为: 当环境使之成为可能，就像双胞胎的情况一样，他人指导的行为不仅是可能的，而且比自我指导的行为占主导地位。”

Types of Socialization

Primary socialization

模板:Main article Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. For example, if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority, or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority/majority groups.


Primary socialization for a child is very important because it sets the groundwork for all future socialization. Primary Socialization occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. It is mainly influenced by the immediate family and friends. For example, if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority, or majority group, then that child may think this behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority/majority groups.

初级社会化对儿童来说非常重要，因为它为未来所有的社会化奠定了基础。初级社会化发生在孩子学习适合个人作为特定文化成员的态度、价值观和行为时。它主要受到直系亲属和朋友的影响。例如，如果一个孩子看到他/她的母亲对少数群体或多数群体表示歧视性意见，那么该孩子可能认为这种行为是可以接受的，并可能继续对少数群体或多数群体持有这种意见。

Secondary socialization

Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to acting in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in.[25] Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them.[25] Secondary socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Such examples of secondary socialization are entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Basically, is the behavioral patterns reinforced by socializing agents of society. Secondary socialization takes place outside the home. It is where children and adults learn how to acting in a way that is appropriate for the situations they are in. Schools require very different behavior from the home, and children must act according to new rules. New teachers have to act in a way that is different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them. Secondary socialization is usually associated with teenagers and adults and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. Such examples of secondary socialization are entering a new profession or relocating to a new environment or society.

第二社会化指的是作为大社会中一个较小群体的成员，学习什么是适当行为的过程。基本上，是由社会的社会化主体强化的行为模式。第二社会化发生在家庭之外。这是儿童和成年人学习如何以适合他们所处情况的方式行事的地方。学校要求的行为与家庭有很大的不同，孩子们必须按照新的规则行事。新教师必须以不同于学生的方式行事，并从周围的人那里学习新的规则。二级社会化通常与青少年和成年人有关，与初级社会化相比，二级社会化的变化较小。这种二次社会化的例子是进入一个新的职业或迁移到一个新的环境或社会。

Anticipatory socialization

Main article: Anticipatory socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like.[26] Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner suggests that parents are the main source of anticipatory socialization in regards to jobs and careers.[27]


Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a couple might move in together before getting married in order to try out, or anticipate, what living together will be like. Research by Kenneth J. Levine and Cynthia A. Hoffner suggests that parents are the main source of anticipatory socialization in regards to jobs and careers.

预期社会化预期社会化指的是一个人为将来的职位、职业和社会关系“排练”的社会化过程。例如，一对夫妇可能会在结婚前搬到一起住，以便尝试或预测一起生活会是什么样子。肯尼斯 · J · 莱文和辛西娅 · A · 霍夫纳的研究表明，父母是工作和职业预期社会化的主要来源。

Resocialization

Main article: Resocialization

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle.[28] Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity & 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.[29] Other examples of this are the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. Another example would be the process by which a transsexual person learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.


Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle.(Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113) Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with his or her past, as well as a need to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. One common example involves resocialization through a total institution, or "a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an administrative staff". Resocialization via total institutions involves a two step process: 1) the staff work to root out a new inmate's individual identity & 2) the staff attempt to create for the inmate a new identity.Macionis, John J. "Sociology: 7th Canadian Edition". (Toronto: Pearson, 2011), 120-121 Other examples of this are the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military, or a religious convert internalizing the beliefs and rituals of a new faith. Another example would be the process by which a transsexual person learns to function socially in a dramatically altered gender role.

重新社会化指的是抛弃以前的行为模式和反应，接受新的行为模式作为人生转变的一部分的过程。这发生在整个人类生命周期。(Schaefer & Lamm，1992:113)重新社会化可以是一种强烈的体验，个体经历与他或她的过去的一个急剧断裂，以及需要学习和暴露在完全不同的规范和价值观。一个常见的例子是通过一个完整的机构进行重新社会化，或者“在一个环境中，人们被孤立于社会的其他部分，并受到行政人员的操纵”。通过整个机构重新社会化包括两个步骤: 1)工作人员根除新囚犯的个人身份; 2)工作人员尝试为囚犯创造一个新的身份。约翰 · J · 马西奥尼斯。《社会学: 加拿大第七版》。(多伦多: 皮尔森，2011) ，120-121其他的例子包括一个年轻的男人或女人离开家去参军的经历，或者一个宗教皈依者内化了一个新信仰的信仰和仪式。另一个例子是变性人学会在一个性别角色急剧变化的社会中发挥作用的过程。

Organizational socialization

Main article: Onboarding
文件:Organizationalsocializationmodel.jpg
Organizational Socialization Chart

Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role.[30] As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This acquired knowledge about new employees' future work environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process.[31] They also learn about their work group, the specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.


thumb|Organizational Socialization Chart Organizational socialization is the process whereby an employee learns the knowledge and skills necessary to assume his or her organizational role. As newcomers become socialized, they learn about the organization and its history, values, jargon, culture, and procedures. This acquired knowledge about new employees' future work environment affects the way they are able to apply their skills and abilities to their jobs. How actively engaged the employees are in pursuing knowledge affects their socialization process. They also learn about their work group, the specific people they work with on a daily basis, their own role in the organization, the skills needed to do their job, and both formal procedures and informal norms. Socialization functions as a control system in that newcomers learn to internalize and obey organizational values and practices.

组织社会化组织社会化是一个员工通过学习必要的知识和技能来承担他或她的组织角色的过程。随着新人的社会化，他们了解组织及其历史、价值观、行话、文化和程序。这种对新员工未来工作环境的了解会影响他们将自己的技能和能力应用到工作中的方式。员工对知识的积极投入程度影响着他们的社会化过程。他们还了解自己的工作小组，每天与他们一起工作的具体人员，他们在组织中的角色，工作所需的技能，以及正式的程序和非正式的规范。社会化作为一个控制系统，新人学会内化和服从组织的价值观和实践。

Group socialization

See also: Group dynamics
文件:Duck Duck Goose.jpg
Group Socialization.

Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood.[32] Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.[33] Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do.[34] For example, twin brothers, whose genetic makeup are identical, will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences.[35] The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality.[36] As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.[37] This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while it's true that siblings don't have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance.[32] Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.[32]


thumb|Group Socialization. Group socialization is the theory that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood. Parental behavior and the home environment has either no effect on the social development of children, or the effect varies significantly between children.Maccoby, E.E. & Martin, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P.H. Mussen (Series Ed.) & E.M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (4th ed., pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley. Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do. For example, twin brothers, whose genetic makeup are identical, will differ in personality because they have different groups of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. Behavioral genetics suggest that up to fifty percent of the variance in adult personality is due to genetic differences.McGue, M., Bouchard, T.J. Jr., Iacono, W.G. & Lykken, D.T. (1993). Behavioral genetics of cognitive stability: A life-span perspectiveness. In R. Plominix & G.E. McClearn (Eds.), Nature, nurture, and psychology (pp. 59-76). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. The environment in which a child is raised accounts for only approximately ten percent in the variance of an adult's personality. Reprinted in As much as twenty percent of the variance is due to measurement error.Plomin, R. (1990). Nature and nurture: An introduction to human behavioral genetics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. This suggests that only a very small part of an adult's personality is influenced by factors parents control (i.e. the home environment). Harris claims that while it's true that siblings don't have identical experiences in the home environment (making it difficult to associate a definite figure to the variance of personality due to home environments), the variance found by current methods is so low that researchers should look elsewhere to try to account for the remaining variance. Harris also states that developing long-term personality characteristics away from the home environment would be evolutionarily beneficial because future success is more likely to depend on interactions with peers than interactions with parents and siblings. Also, because of already existing genetic similarities with parents, developing personalities outside of childhood home environments would further diversify individuals, increasing their evolutionary success.

= = 群体社会化 = = 拇指 | 群体社会化。群体社会化理论认为，个体的同龄人群体而不是父母形象是成年人个性和行为的主要影响因素。父母行为和家庭环境对儿童的社会性发展要么没有影响，要么影响因儿童而异。Maccoby E.E.& 马丁，J.A。(1983).家庭背景下的社会化: 亲子互动。在公共卫生部。Mussen (Series Ed.)& E.M. Hetherington (Vol.艾德。) ，儿童心理学手册: 卷。4.社会化、个性与社会发展。1–101).Wiley.青少年花在同龄人身上的时间比花在父母身上的时间多。因此，同伴群体与人格发展的相关性比父母群体更强。例如，基因构成相同的双胞胎兄弟会因为朋友群体不同而性格不同，这并不一定是因为他们的父母教育他们的方式不同。行为遗传学表明，成年人性格差异的百分之五十是由于基因差异造成的。麦克格、 M。、布沙尔、小 T.j。、亚科诺、 W.G. 。& Lykken, D.T.(1993).认知稳定性的行为遗传学: 寿命视角。在 R. Plominix & GE。麦克劳恩(编辑部)。)、先天、后天和心理学。59-76).华盛顿: 美国心理学协会。孩子成长的环境只占成年人性格差异的10% 左右。转载多达百分之二十的差异是由于测量误差。先天与后天: 人类行为遗传学导论。太平洋格罗夫，加利福尼亚州: 布鲁克斯/科尔。这表明只有很小一部分成年人的性格受到父母控制因素的影响。家居环境)。哈里斯声称，虽然兄弟姐妹在家庭环境中的经历并不相同(这使得很难将一个确切的数字与家庭环境中的性格差异联系起来) ，但是现有方法发现的性格差异非常低，因此研究人员应该寻找其他方法来解释剩余的性格差异。哈里斯还指出，发展远离家庭环境的长期性格特征对进化是有益的，因为未来的成功更有可能取决于与同龄人的互动，而不是与父母和兄弟姐妹的互动。此外，由于已经存在与父母的基因相似性，发展个性以外的童年家庭环境将进一步多样化的个体，增加他们的进化成功。

Stages

Stages

= = = 各个阶段 = = =

Individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order for an individual to transition through a group; investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective, new, full, marginal, and ex member.[38]

Individuals and groups change their evaluations and commitments to each other over time. There is a predictable sequence of stages that occur in order for an individual to transition through a group; investigation, socialization, maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance. During each stage, the individual and the group evaluate each other which leads to an increase or decrease in commitment to socialization. This socialization pushes the individual from prospective, new, full, marginal, and ex member.

随着时间的推移，个人和团体之间的评估和承诺会发生变化。有一个可预测的阶段发生的顺序，以便个人通过一个群体过渡; 调查，社会化，维护，再社会化，和记忆。在每个阶段，个人和群体相互评价，导致增加或减少对社会化的承诺。这种社会化推动个体从未来的、新的、充分的、边缘的和前成员。

Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer.

Stage 1: Investigation This stage is marked by a cautious search for information. The individual compares groups in order to determine which one will fulfill their needs (reconnaissance), while the group estimates the value of the potential member (recruitment). The end of this stage is marked by entry to the group, whereby the group asks the individual to join and they accept the offer.

第一阶段: 调查这一阶段的特点是谨慎地搜寻信息。个人比较组以确定哪一个将满足他们的需要(侦察) ，而组估计潜在成员的价值(招聘)。这一阶段的结束标志着进入团体，团体要求个人加入，他们接受提议。

Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from a prospective member to a new member, they must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit the new member's needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions if they believe that they will be treated differently as a newcomer.

Stage 2: Socialization Now that the individual has moved from a prospective member to a new member, they must accept the group's culture. At this stage, the individual accepts the group's norms, values, and perspectives (assimilation), and the group adapts to fit the new member's needs (accommodation). The acceptance transition point is then reached and the individual becomes a full member. However, this transition can be delayed if the individual or the group reacts negatively. For example, the individual may react cautiously or misinterpret other members' reactions if they believe that they will be treated differently as a newcomer.

阶段2: 社会化既然个人已经从一个潜在成员转变为一个新成员，他们必须接受团体的文化。在这个阶段，个人接受团队的规范、价值观和观点(同化) ，团队适应新成员的需要(适应)。然后到达接受转换点，个人成为正式成员。然而，如果个人或团体做出消极反应，这种转变可能会被延迟。例如，个人可能会反应谨慎或误解其他成员的反应，如果他们认为他们将被作为一个新人区别对待。

Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (divergence).

Stage 3: Maintenance During this stage, the individual and the group negotiate what contribution is expected of members (role negotiation). While many members remain in this stage until the end of their membership, some individuals are not satisfied with their role in the group or fail to meet the group's expectations (divergence).

阶段3: 维护在这个阶段，个人和团队协商对成员的期望贡献(角色协商)。虽然许多成员一直处于这个阶段直到他们的成员结束，一些个人不满意他们在小组中的作用或未能满足小组的期望(分歧)。

Stage 4: Resocialization If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: differences are resolved and the individual becomes a full member again (convergence), or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave (exit).

Stage 4: Resocialization If the divergence point is reached, the former full member takes on the role of a marginal member and must be resocialized. There are two possible outcomes of resocialization: differences are resolved and the individual becomes a full member again (convergence), or the group expels the individual or the individual decides to leave (exit).

阶段4: 重新社会化如果达到分歧点，前正式成员就会扮演边缘成员的角色，必须重新社会化。重新社会化有两种可能的结果: 分歧得到解决，个人再次成为正式成员(趋同) ，或者群体驱逐个人或个人决定离开(退出)。

Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's tradition.

Stage 5: Remembrance In this stage, former members reminisce about their memories of the group and make sense of their recent departure. If the group reaches a consensus on their reasons for departure, conclusions about the overall experience of the group become part of the group's tradition.

第五阶段: 回忆在这个阶段，前成员回忆他们对集团的记忆，并理解他们最近的离开。如果团队对他们离开的原因达成共识，那么关于团队整体经验的结论就成为团队传统的一部分。

Gender socialization

See also: Sociology of gender § Gender and socialization, Social construction of gender, and Role theory

Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behaviour that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural, and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are groups including friends, peers, school, work, and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76). In peer group activities, stereotypic gender roles may also be rejected, renegotiated, or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.[39]


Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The behaviour that is seen to be appropriate for each gender is largely determined by societal, cultural, and economic values in a given society. Gender socialization can therefore vary considerably among societies with different values. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are groups including friends, peers, school, work, and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76). In peer group activities, stereotypic gender roles may also be rejected, renegotiated, or artfully exploited for a variety of purposes.

性别社会化汉斯林(1999:76)认为“社会化的一个重要部分是学习文化定义的性别角色。”性别社会化是指学习被认为适合某一特定性别的行为和态度。男孩学会做男孩，女孩学会做女孩。这种“学习”通过许多不同的社会化因素发生。被认为适合每个性别的行为在很大程度上取决于特定社会中的社会、文化和经济价值观。因此，具有不同价值观的社会之间的性别社会化可能有很大差异。家庭在强化性别角色方面当然很重要，但包括朋友、同龄人、学校、工作和大众媒体在内的群体也很重要。性别角色通过“无数微妙和不那么微妙的方式”得到加强(1999:76)。在同龄人群体活动中，陈规定型的性别角色也可能被拒绝、重新谈判或为了各种目的而被巧妙地利用。

Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men.[40]

Carol Gilligan compared the moral development of girls and boys in her theory of gender and moral development. She claimed (1982, 1990) that boys have a justice perspective meaning that they rely on formal rules to define right and wrong. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective where personal relationships are considered when judging a situation. Gilligan also studied the effect of gender on self-esteem. She claimed that society's socialization of females is the reason why girls' self-esteem diminishes as they grow older. Girls struggle to regain their personal strength when moving through adolescence as they have fewer female teachers and most authority figures are men.Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda (2010). Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc. p. 109

卡罗尔 · 吉利根在她的性别和道德发展理论中比较了女孩和男孩的道德发展。她声称(1982年，1990年) ，男孩有一个正义的视角，意味着他们依靠正式的规则来定义是非。另一方面，女孩有一种关心和责任的观点，在判断情况时会考虑人际关系。Gilligan 还研究了性别对自尊的影响。她声称，社会对女性的社会化是女孩随着年龄增长自尊心下降的原因。由于女教师较少，而且大多数权威人物是男性，女孩在度过青春期时很难恢复个人实力。Macionis，Gerber，John，Linda (2010).社会学第七届加拿大教育学院。多伦多，安大略省: 皮尔逊加拿大公司第109页

As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.[41]

As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations.

由于父母从一开始就存在于孩子的生活中，他们对孩子早期社会化的影响是非常重要的，特别是在性别角色方面。社会学家已经确定了父母将孩子的性别角色社会化的四种方式: 通过玩具和活动塑造与性别相关的属性，根据孩子的性别区分他们与孩子的互动，作为主要的性别模式，以及传达性别理想和期望。

Sociologist of gender R.W. Connell contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants," when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity.[42]

Sociologist of gender R.W. Connell contends that socialization theory is "inadequate" for explaining gender, because it presumes a largely consensual process except for a few "deviants," when really most children revolt against pressures to be conventionally gendered; because it cannot explain contradictory "scripts" that come from different socialization agents in the same society, and because it does not account for conflict between the different levels of an individual's gender (and general) identity.

性别社会学家 R.W。康奈尔认为，社会化理论“不足以”解释性别问题，因为它假定除了少数“异常者”之外，大多数儿童都反抗传统的性别压力; 因为它无法解释来自同一社会中不同社会化代理人的相互矛盾的“脚本”，也因为它没有解释个人性别(和一般)认同的不同层面之间的冲突。

Racial socialization

Racial socialization, or Racial-ethnic socialization, has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".[43] The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other.[44] Cultural socialization refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is sometimes referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with common humanity.[44]

Racial socialization, or Racial-ethnic socialization, has been defined as "the developmental processes by which children acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group, and come to see themselves and others as members of the group".Rotherman, M., & Phinney, J. (1987). Introduction: Definitions and perspectives in the study of children's ethnic socialization. In J. Phinney & M. Rotherman (Eds.), Children's ethnic socialization: Pluralism and development (pp. 10-28). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. The existing literature conceptualizes racial socialization as having multiple dimensions. Researchers have identified five dimensions that commonly appear in the racial socialization literature: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust, egalitarianism, and other. Cultural socialization refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history or heritage and is sometimes referred to as pride development. Preparation for bias refers to parenting practices focused on preparing children to be aware of, and cope with, discrimination. Promotion of mistrust refers to the parenting practices of socializing children to be wary of people from other races. Egalitarianism refers to socializing children with the belief that all people are equal and should be treated with common humanity.

种族社会化，或称种族-民族社会化，被定义为“儿童获得一个民族群体的行为、认知、价值观和态度，并将自己和他人视为群体成员的发展过程”。Rotherman，M，& Phinney，J.(1987).引言: 儿童民族社会化研究的定义和视角。在 J. Phinney & M。儿童的民族社会化: 多元化与发展。10-28).赛吉出版公司。现有文献将种族社会化概念化为多维度的。研究人员已经确定了种族社会化文献中常见的五个维度: 文化社会化、为偏见做准备、促进不信任、平等主义和其他。文化社会化是指教育孩子了解其种族历史或遗产的养育方式，有时也被称为骄傲发展。准备偏见是指父母的做法，重点是让孩子意识到和应对歧视。促进不信任指的是将儿童社会化以提防其他种族的人的养育方法。平等主义是指将儿童社会化，使他们相信所有人都是平等的，应该以共同的人性对待他们。

Oppression socialization

Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality."[45] This action is a form of political socialization in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion."[45]

Oppression socialization refers to the process by which "individuals develop understandings of power and political structure, particularly as these inform perceptions of identity, power, and opportunity relative to gender, racialized group membership, and sexuality." This action is a form of political socialization in its relation to power and the persistent compliance of the disadvantaged with their oppression using limited "overt coercion."

压迫社会化指的是“个人发展对权力和政治结构的理解的过程，特别是当这些理解影响了对身份、权力和与性别相关的机会、种族化的团体成员和性的认识时。”这种行为是政治社会化的一种形式，与权力有关，弱势群体通过有限的“公开强制”持续顺从他们的压迫

Language socialization

Based on comparative research in different societies, focusing on the role of language in child development, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin have developed the theory of language socialization.[46] They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.

Based on comparative research in different societies, focusing on the role of language in child development, linguistic anthropologists Elinor Ochs and Bambi Schieffelin have developed the theory of language socialization.

  • Schieffelin, Bambi B.; Ochs, Elinor (1987). Language Socialization across Cultures. Volume 3 of Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language. Cambridge University Press,
  • Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1990). The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language, Socialization of Kaluli Children. P CUP Archive,
  • Duranti, Alessandro; Ochs, Elinor; Schieffelin, Bambi B. (2011). The Handbook of Language Socialization, Volume 72 of Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. John Wiley & Sons,

They discovered that the processes of enculturation and socialization do not occur apart from the process of language acquisition, but that children acquire language and culture together in what amounts to an integrated process. Members of all societies socialize children both to and through the use of language; acquiring competence in a language, the novice is by the same token socialized into the categories and norms of the culture, while the culture, in turn, provides the norms of the use of language.

语言社会化语言人类学家埃莉诺 · 奥克斯(Elinor Ochs)和班比 · 希弗林(Bambi Schieffelin)基于对不同社会的比较研究，重点研究了语言在儿童发展中的作用，提出了语言社会化理论。* Schieffelin，Bambi B. ; Ochs，Elinor (1987).跨文化语言社会化。语言的社会和文化基础研究第三卷。剑桥大学出版社，* Schieffelin，Bambi B。(1990).日常生活的给予与索取: 卡鲁利儿童的语言与社会化。P CUP Archive,

  • Duranti, Alessandro; Ochs, Elinor; Schieffelin, Bambi B.(2011).语言社会化手册，布莱克威尔语言学手册第72卷。约翰威立，他们发现，文化和社会化的过程并不发生在语言习得的过程之外，而是儿童共同获得语言和文化的过程相当于一个整合的过程。所有社会的成员都通过使用语言使儿童社会化; 获得一种语言的能力，新手同样被社会化为文化的类别和规范，而文化反过来又提供使用语言的规范。

Planned socialization

Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward.[47]

Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others. This type of socialization can take on many forms and can occur at any point from infancy onward.

当其他人采取旨在教导或训练他人的行动时，就发生了有计划的社会化。这种类型的社会化可以采取多种形式，可以发生在婴儿期以来的任何时候。

Natural socialization

Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way.[47]

Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad qualities: it is useful to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization in order to incorporate them into life in a meaningful way.

自然社会化发生在婴幼儿和青少年探索、玩耍和发现他们周围的社会世界的时候。在观察几乎所有哺乳动物物种(和一些鸟类)的幼崽时，自然社会化很容易看到。有计划的社会化主要是一种人类现象，在历史上，人们一直在计划着教育或培训他人。自然社会化和计划社会化都有好的和坏的特征: 学习自然社会化和计划社会化的最佳特征是有用的，以便以一种有意义的方式将它们融入生活。

Positive socialization

Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desired behaviours are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviours in the future.[47]

Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Positive socialization occurs when desired behaviours are reinforced with a reward, encouraging the individual to continue exhibiting similar behaviours in the future.

积极的社会化是一种基于愉悦和兴奋经历的社会学习。我们倾向于喜欢那些在社会学习过程中充满积极动机、关爱和奖励机会的人。积极的社会化发生在当期望的行为被奖励加强，鼓励个人在未来继续表现出类似的行为。

Negative socialization

Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms, or anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.[47] There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.[47]

Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms, or anger to try to "teach us a lesson"; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization, and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be—especially if we are able to learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, leading to defeated or pessimistic feelings about life.

当别人用惩罚、严厉的批评或者愤怒来试图“给我们一个教训”时，消极的社会化就发生了; 而且通常我们不喜欢消极的社会化，也不喜欢把它强加给我们的人。积极社会化和消极社会化有各种各样的混合体，我们拥有的积极社会学习经验越多，我们往往就越快乐ーー特别是如果我们能够学到有用的信息，帮助我们很好地应对生活中的挑战。高比例的消极和积极的社会化会使一个人不快乐，导致对生活的挫败感或悲观情绪。

Institutions

模板:Main article In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.[48]


In the social sciences, institutions are the structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.

在社会科学中，机构是社会秩序和合作的结构和机制，管理特定人类集体中个人的行为。制度被认为具有社会目的和持久性，超越个人的生活和意图，并且具有制定和执行管理人类合作行为的规则。

Productive processing of reality

From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book Social Structure and Personality Development,[49] he develops the model of productive processing of reality. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity".[49]:42 The process of productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course.[50]

From the late 1980s, sociological and psychological theories have been connected with the term socialization. One example of this connection is the theory of Klaus Hurrelmann. In his book Social Structure and Personality Development,Hurrelmann, Klaus (1989, reissued 2009). Social Structure and Personality Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press he develops the model of productive processing of reality. The core idea is that socialization refers to an individual's personality development. It is the result of the productive processing of interior and exterior realities. Bodily and mental qualities and traits constitute a person's inner reality; the circumstances of the social and physical environment embody the external reality. Reality processing is productive because human beings actively grapple with their lives and attempt to cope with the attendant developmental tasks. The success of such a process depends on the personal and social resources available. Incorporated within all developmental tasks is the necessity to reconcile personal individuation and social integration and so secure the "I-dentity". The process of productive processing of reality is an enduring process throughout the life course.Hurrelmann, Klaus; Bauer, Ullrich (2018). Socialisation During the Life Course. London/New York: Routledge

从20世纪80年代末开始，社会学和心理学理论就与“社会化”这个术语联系在一起。克劳斯•赫尔曼(Klaus Hurrelmann)的理论就是这种联系的一个例子。在他的著作《社会结构和个性发展》中，Hurrelmann，Klaus (1989,2009年再版)。社会结构与人格发展。剑桥: 剑桥大学出版社他发展了现实的生产加工模型。其核心思想是社会化是指个体的人格发展。它是内在和外在现实生产加工的结果。身心素质和特质构成了一个人的内在现实，社会环境和物质环境的状况体现了外在的现实。现实处理是富有成效的，因为人类积极地与他们的生活搏斗，并试图应付随之而来的发展任务。这一进程的成功取决于可用的个人和社会资源。在所有的发展任务中，都有必要协调个人个性化和社会融合，从而确保“我的身份”。现实的生产加工过程是贯穿一生的持久过程。生命历程中的社会化。伦敦/纽约: Routledge

Oversocialization

See also: Political socialization

The problem of order or Hobbesian problem questions the existence of social orders and asks if it is possible to oppose them. Émile Durkheim viewed society as an external force controlling individuals through the imposition of sanctions and codes of law. However, constraints and sanctions also arise internally as feelings of guilt or anxiety. If conformity as an expression of the need for belonging, the process of socialization is not necessarily universal. Behavior may not be influenced by society at all, but instead, be determined biologically.[51] The behavioral sciences during the second half of the twentieth century were dominated by two contrasting models of human political behavior, homo economicus and cultural hegemony, collectively termed the standard social science model. In response, the fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology developed notions such as dominance hierarchies, cultural group selection, and dual inheritance theory. Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture, or genes and culture.[52] A focus on innate behavior at the expense of learning is termed undersocialization, while attributing behavior to learning when it is the result of evolution is termed oversocialization.[53]


The problem of order or Hobbesian problem questions the existence of social orders and asks if it is possible to oppose them. Émile Durkheim viewed society as an external force controlling individuals through the imposition of sanctions and codes of law. However, constraints and sanctions also arise internally as feelings of guilt or anxiety. If conformity as an expression of the need for belonging, the process of socialization is not necessarily universal. Behavior may not be influenced by society at all, but instead, be determined biologically. The behavioral sciences during the second half of the twentieth century were dominated by two contrasting models of human political behavior, homo economicus and cultural hegemony, collectively termed the standard social science model. In response, the fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology developed notions such as dominance hierarchies, cultural group selection, and dual inheritance theory. Behavior is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture, or genes and culture. A focus on innate behavior at the expense of learning is termed undersocialization, while attributing behavior to learning when it is the result of evolution is termed oversocialization.

过度社会化 = = 秩序问题或霍布斯问题质疑社会秩序的存在，并询问是否有可能反对它们。埃米尔 · 迪尔凯姆认为社会是通过实施制裁和法律规范来控制个人的外部力量。然而，约束和制裁也会在内心产生负罪感或焦虑感。如果从众作为归属感需求的一种表达，那么社会化的过程就不一定是普遍的。行为可能根本不受社会影响，而是由生物决定的。二十世纪下半叶的行为科学主要是由两种截然不同的人类政治行为模型所主导，经济人和文化霸权，统称为标准社会科学模型。相应地，社会生物学和进化心理学领域发展了诸如优势等级、文化群体选择和双重遗传理论等概念。行为是先天与后天或基因与文化之间复杂互动的结果。以牺牲学习为代价的对先天行为的关注被称为社会化不足，而将进化的结果归因于学习的行为被称为过度社会化。

See also

References

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  46. ↑

Further reading

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取自“https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=社会化&oldid=32643”