热力学

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文件:Carnot engine (hot body - working body - cold body).jpg

Annotated color version of the original 1824 Carnot heat engine showing the hot body (boiler), working body (system, steam), and cold body (water), the letters labeled according to the stopping points in Carnot cycle. 1824年卡诺热机原件的彩色注释版，显示热体（锅炉）、工作体（系统、蒸汽）和冷体（水），字母根据卡诺循环中的停止点进行标注。

模板:Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative description using measurable macroscopic physical quantities, but may be explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics. Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, especially physical chemistry, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering, but also in other complex fields such as meteorology.

热力学Thermodynamics是物理学的一个分支，是研究热、功和温度，以及它们与能量、辐射和物质物理特性的关系的学科。这些变量的行为遵循热力学四大定律，热力学定律定量描述了许多可测量的宏观物理量。但这又可以通过统计力学中的微观部分推导出来。热力学适用于科学和工程中的各种各样的领域，尤其是物理化学、化学工程和机械工程，但也适用于类似气象学这样复杂的领域。

Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars.^[1] Scots-Irish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854^[2] which stated, "Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency."

从历史上看，热力学的发展源于提高早期蒸汽机效率的愿望，特别是法国物理学家萨迪·卡诺（N. L. Sadi Carnot）在1824年的工作，他认为发动机效率是可以帮助法国赢得拿破仑战争的关键。^[1] 苏格兰裔爱尔兰物理学家开尔文勋爵（Lord Kelvin）于1854年首次提出了热力学的简明定义，^[2] 他指出：“热力学是关于热与作用在物体相邻部分之间作用力的关系，以及热与电的关系的学科。”

The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was quickly extended to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions. Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged. Statistical thermodynamics, or statistical mechanics, concerns itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior. In 1909, Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach in an axiomatic formulation, a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics.

热力学在机械热机上的应用很快就扩展到了对化合物和化学反应的研究上。化学热力学研究了熵在化学反应过程中的作用性质，为热力学提供了更广阔的领域和知识。^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] 热力学的其他提法出现了。统计热力学，或称统计力学，关注从微观角度对粒子的集体运动进行的统计预测。在1909年，康斯坦丁·卡拉西奥多（Constantin Carathéodory）以公理的形式提出了一种纯粹的数学方法，这种描述通常被称为几何热力学。

Introduction 引言

A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work.^[12] The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.^[13]

A description of any thermodynamic system employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis. The first law specifies that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat and work. The second law defines the existence of a quantity called entropy, that describes the direction, thermodynamically, that a system can evolve and quantifies the state of order of a system and that can be used to quantify the useful work that can be extracted from the system.

任何热力学系统的描述都采用了热力学四大定律，这些定律构成了公理基础。第一定律规定，能量可以作为热和功在物理系统之间进行交换。^[12] 第二定律定义了一个叫做熵的量的存在，熵从热力学的角度描述了一个系统可以演化方向，并量化了一个系统的秩序状态，它还可以用来量化可以从系统中提取出来的有用功。^[13]

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of the thermodynamic system and its surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, and those properties are in turn related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express internal energy and thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes.

热力学研究和分类了大量物体集合之间的相互作用，其核心是热力学系统及其周围环境的概念。一个系统是由粒子组成的，粒子的平均运动决定了它的性质，而这些性质又通过物态方程相互关联。这些性质可以结合起来表示内能和热力学势Thermodynamic potential，这对于确定平衡和自发过程的条件是有益的。 With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few.^[14]^[15]

With these tools, thermodynamics can be used to describe how systems respond to changes in their environment. This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering, such as engines, phase transitions, chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes. The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering, corrosion engineering, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology, biomedical engineering, materials science, and economics, to name a few.

有了这些方法，热力学可以用来描述系统如何对其环境的变化做出反应。这可以应用于科学和工程的各种领域，如发动机、相变、化学反应、输运现象，甚至黑洞。热力学的结论对于物理学的其他领域、化学、化学工程、腐蚀工程、航空航天工程、机械工程、细胞生物学、生物医学工程、材料科学和经济学等领域都是十分有益的。^[14]^[15]

This article is focused mainly on classical thermodynamics which primarily studies systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is often treated as an extension of the classical treatment, but statistical mechanics has brought many advances to that field.

本文主要关注经典热力学，主要研究热力学平衡Thermodynamic equilibrium中的系统。非平衡热力学Non-equilibrium通常被视为经典方法的延伸，但是统计力学已经为这个领域带来了许多进步。

文件:Eight founding schools.png

The thermodynamicists representative of the original eight founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting effect in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly as established in Rudolf Clausius’s 1865 textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school, with the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian school at Yale University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances launching chemical thermodynamics.^[16]

The [[thermodynamicists representative of the original eight founding schools of thermodynamics. The schools with the most-lasting effect in founding the modern versions of thermodynamics are the Berlin school, particularly as established in Rudolf Clausius’s 1865 textbook The Mechanical Theory of Heat, the Vienna school, with the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann, and the Gibbsian school at Yale University, American engineer Willard Gibbs' 1876 On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances launching chemical thermodynamics.

代表热力学最初八个学派的热力学学者。在建立现代版本的热力学方面影响最深远的是柏林学派，这是起源鲁道夫·克劳修斯（Rudolf Clausius）在1865年的教科书《热的力学理论》（The Mechanical Theory of Heat）中的学派；维也纳学派，以路德维希·玻尔兹曼的统计力学著称；以及耶鲁大学的吉布斯学派，美国工程师威拉德·吉布斯（J. Willard Gibbs）在1876年《论非均质物质的平衡》（On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances）中阐述了化学热力学。

History 历史

The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump.^[17] Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built a steam digester, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.

The history of thermodynamics as a scientific discipline generally begins with Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, built and designed the world's first vacuum pump and demonstrated a vacuum using his Magdeburg hemispheres. Guericke was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly after Guericke, the English physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and, in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed a correlation between pressure, temperature, and volume. In time, Boyle's Law was formulated, which states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Then, in 1679, based on these concepts, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built a steam digester, which was a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.

热力学作为一门科学学科的历史通常始于奥托·冯·格里克（Otto von Guericke），他在1650年建造和设计了世界上第一个真空泵，并通过马德堡半球实验展示了真空。促使格里克展示真空的原因，是为了推翻亚里士多德（Aristotle）长期坚持的 "自然憎恶真空 "的假设。在格里克之后不久，英国物理学家和化学家罗伯特·波义耳（Robert Boyle）得知了格里克的设计，在1656年与英国科学家罗伯特·胡克（Robert Hooke）合作制造了一个空气泵。^[17] 利用这个空气泵，波义耳和胡克注意到压力、温度和体积之间的关系。随后，波义耳定律Boyle's Law被提出，它指出压强和体积是成反比的。随后在1679年，波义耳的一位名叫丹尼斯·帕潘（Denis Papin）的同事基于这些理念，制造了一个蒸汽蒸煮器Steam digester，这是一个封闭的容器，带有一个紧密的盖子，可以封闭蒸汽，直到高压的产生。

Later designs implemented a steam release valve that kept the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and a cylinder engine. He did not, however, follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine, followed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time.

后来的设计增加了一个蒸汽释放阀，以防止机器爆炸。通过观察阀门有节奏地上下运动，帕潘构思了活塞和汽缸发动机的想法。然而，他并没有坚持他的想法。尽管如此，根据帕潘的设计，工程师托马斯·萨弗里（Thomas Savery）在1697年制造了第一台发动机，随后托马斯·纽科曼（Thomas Newcomen）在1712年也同样制造了一台发动机。虽然这些早期的发动机很粗糙且效率低下，但他们吸引了当时的主要科学家的注意。

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor Joseph Black at the University of Glasgow, where James Watt was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine efficiency.^[18] Drawing on all the previous work led Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", to publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the Carnot engine, the Carnot cycle, and motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.^[10]

The fundamental concepts of heat capacity and latent heat, which were necessary for the development of thermodynamics, were developed by Professor Joseph Black at the University of Glasgow, where James Watt was employed as an instrument maker. Black and Watt performed experiments together, but it was Watt who conceived the idea of the external condenser which resulted in a large increase in steam engine efficiency. Drawing on all the previous work led Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", to publish Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), a discourse on heat, power, energy and engine efficiency. The book outlined the basic energetic relations between the Carnot engine, the Carnot cycle, and motive power. It marked the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.

热容Heat capacity和潜热Latent heat的基本概念是热力学的发展所必需的，这些概念是由约瑟夫·布莱克（Joseph Black）教授在格拉斯哥大学提出的，而詹姆斯·瓦特（James Watt）当时是那里的一个仪器制造商。布莱克和瓦特一起进行了实验，但正由于瓦特提出了制造外部冷凝器的想法，使得蒸汽机的效率大大提升。^[18] 根据先前所有的工作，“热力学之父”萨迪·卡诺（Sadi Cannot）在1824年发表了《关于火的动力的反思》（Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire），这是一篇关于热、动力、能源和发动机效率的论文。这篇论文概述了卡诺热机Cannot engine、卡诺循环Cannot cycle和动力之间的基本能量关系。它标志着热力学作为一门现代科学的开始。

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the University of Glasgow.^[19] The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).^[20]

The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, originally trained as a physicist and a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the University of Glasgow. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out of the works of William Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

第一本热力学教科书是威廉·兰金（William Rankine）在1859年编写的，他接受了物理学的训练，是格拉斯哥大学的土木和机械工程教授。^[19] 热力学的第一和第二定律在19世纪50年代同时被提出，它们主要是由威廉·兰金（William Rankine），鲁道夫·克劳修斯（Rudolf Clausius）和开尔文勋爵（Lord Kelvin）提出的。^[20]

The foundations of statistical thermodynamics were set out by physicists such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Max Planck, Rudolf Clausius and J. Willard Gibbs.

统计热力学的基础是由如詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦（James Clerk Maxwell），路德维希·玻尔兹曼（Ludwig Boltzmann），马克思·普朗克（Max Planck），鲁道夫·克劳修斯（Rudolf Clausius）和威拉德·吉布斯（J. Willard Gibbs）等物理学家奠定的。

During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous being On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,^[3] in which he showed how thermodynamic processes, including chemical reactions, could be graphically analyzed, by studying the energy, entropy, volume, temperature and pressure of the thermodynamic system in such a manner, one can determine if a process would occur spontaneously.^[21] Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics.^[4] During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall,^[5] and E. A. Guggenheim^[6]^[7] applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.

During the years 1873–76 the American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous being On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, Also Pierre Duhem in the 19th century wrote about chemical thermodynamics. During the early 20th century, chemists such as Gilbert N. Lewis, Merle Randall, and E. A. Guggenheim applied the mathematical methods of Gibbs to the analysis of chemical processes.

在1873年至1876年间，美国数学物理学家威拉德·吉布斯（J. Willard Gibbs）发表了三篇一系列的论文，其中最著名的是《论非均质物质的平衡》（On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances），^[3] 他在其中展示了如何通过研究能量、熵、体积、温度和压力来以图象方式分析热力学过程，包括化学反应的过程。以这种方式来研究热力学系统，人们可以确定一个过程是否会自发发生。^[21] 此外皮埃尔·杜赫姆（Pierre Duhem）在19世纪也写过关于化学热力学的论文。^[4] 在20世纪初，吉尔伯特·牛顿·刘易斯（Gilbert N. Lewis）、梅尔·兰道尔（Merle Randall）^[5] 和古根海姆（E. A. Guggenheim）^[6]^[7] 等化学家将吉布斯的数学方法应用于化学过程的分析。

Etymology 词源

The history of the term is rich, more needs to be added, the etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.^[22] It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as an adjective (thermo-dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the noun thermo-dynamics to represent the science of generalized heat engines.^[22]

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The history of the term is rich, more needs to be added, the etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history. It was first spelled in a hyphenated form as an adjective (thermo-dynamic) and from 1854 to 1868 as the noun thermo-dynamics to represent the science of generalized heat engines.

热力学的词源有着错综复杂的历史。它最早以连字符形式作为形容词（热力学，thermo-dynamic）出现，从1854年到1868年，其开始作为名词来代表广义热机的科学。^[22]

American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root θέρμη therme, meaning “heat”, and δύναμις dynamis, meaning “power”.^[23]

美国生物物理学家唐纳德·海尼（Donald Haynie）认为，热力学是在1840年从希腊词根θέρμη therme（意为 "热"）和δύναμις dynamis（意为 "动力"）中创造的。^[23]

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the science of relations between heat and power,^[10] however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term perfect thermo-dynamic engine in reference to Thomson's 1849^[24] phraseology.^[22]

Pierre Perrot claims that the term thermodynamics was coined by James Joule in 1858 to designate the science of relations between heat and power, however, Joule never used that term, but used instead the term perfect thermo-dynamic engine in reference to Thomson's 1849 phraseology.

皮埃尔·佩罗（Pierre Perrot）认为，热力学一词是由詹姆斯·焦耳（James Joule）在1858年创造的，用来指代热和能量之间关系的科学。^[10]然而，焦耳自己从来没有使用过这个词语，而是参照汤姆森在1849年^[24] 使用的措辞，^[22]使用了完美热动力发动机（Perfect thermo-dynamic engine）一词。

By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat."^[24]

By 1858, thermo-dynamics, as a functional term, was used in William Thomson's paper "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat."

到1858年，热力学作为一个功能性名词，被用于威廉· 汤姆森（William Thomson）的论文《卡诺的热动力理论说明》中。^[24]

Branches of thermodynamics 热力学的分支

The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems.

热力学系统的研究已经发展成几个相关的分支，每个分支都使用不同的基本模型作为理论或实验基础，或者将这些原理应用于不同类型的系统。

Classical thermodynamics 经典热力学

Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the development of statistical mechanics.

Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermodynamic systems at near-equilibrium, that uses macroscopic, measurable properties. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the first level of understanding of the subject as it developed in the 19th century and describes the changes of a system in terms of macroscopic empirical (large scale, and measurable) parameters. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was later provided by the development of statistical mechanics.

经典热力学是对处于近似平衡状态的热力学系统状态的描述，它通常借助宏观的、可测量的性质。它被用来模拟基于热力学定律的能量、功和热的交换。修饰词 "经典" 反映了这样一个事实，即它代表了人们对这个学科在19世纪发展过程中的第一层次的理解，并以宏观经验（大尺度和可测量的）参数来描述一个系统的变化。这些概念的微观解释后来由统计力学的发展补充。

Statistical mechanics 统计力学

Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.^[20]

Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the late 19th century and early 20th century, and supplemented classical thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining classical thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.

统计力学，又称统计热力学，是随着19世纪末20世纪初原子和分子理论的发展而出现的，并以增加对单个粒子或量子力学状态之间的微观相互作用的解释来补充经典热力学。这个领域将单个原子和分子的微观属性与人类尺度上可以观察到的物质的宏观属性联系起来，从而将经典热力学解释为统计学、经典力学和量子理论在微观层面的自然结果。^[20]

Chemical thermodynamics 化学热力学

Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.

化学热力学是在热力学定律的范围内研究能量与化学反应或与物理状态变化的相互关系的学科。

Equilibrium thermodynamics 平衡热力学

Equilibrium thermodynamics is the study of transfers of matter and energy in systems or bodies that, by agencies in their surroundings, can be driven from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another. The term 'thermodynamic equilibrium' indicates a state of balance, in which all macroscopic flows are zero; in the case of the simplest systems or bodies, their intensive properties are homogeneous, and their pressures are perpendicular to their boundaries. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials, or driving forces, between macroscopically distinct parts of the system. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial equilibrium state, and given its surroundings, and given its constitutive walls, to calculate what will be the final equilibrium state of the system after a specified thermodynamic operation has changed its walls or surroundings.

平衡热力学研究的是物质和能量在系统或物体中的转移，这些系统或物体在其周围环境的作用下，可以从一种热力学平衡状态转移到另一种状态。术语 "热力学平衡 "表示一种平衡状态，在这种状态下，所有的宏观流动都是零；对于最简单的系统或物体来说，它们的密集属性是均匀的，它们的压力垂直于它们的边界。在平衡状态下，系统中宏观上不同的部分之间没有不平衡的势能或驱动力。平衡热力学的一个核心目标是：给定一个处于明确的初始平衡状态的系统，给定其周围环境，给定其本构壁，计算在一个特定的热力学操作改变其壁或周围环境后，该系统的最终平衡状态将是什么。

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.

非平衡热力学是热力学的一个分支，主要研究不处于热力学平衡的系统。在自然界中发现的大多数系统都不处于热力学平衡状态，因为它们不处于静止状态，并且连续或不连续地受到其他系统的物质和能量流动的影响。对非平衡系统的热力学研究需要比平衡热力学处理更一般的概念。在今天，许多自然系统仍然超出目前已知的宏观热力学方法的范围。

--厚朴（讨论） 2020年7月20日 (一) 09:41 (CST)continuously and discontinuously的翻译是不是有些不恰当

--天天 2022年4月22日（五）08：29（CST）已对continuously and discontinuously的翻译做修正

Laws of thermodynamics 热力学定律

Thermodynamics is principally based on a set of four laws which are universally valid when applied to systems that fall within the constraints implied by each. In the various theoretical descriptions of thermodynamics these laws may be expressed in seemingly differing forms, but the most prominent formulations are the following.

热力学主要是建立在一系列四条定律的基础上的，当应用于属于每个定律所隐含的约束的系统时，这些定律是普遍有效的。在热力学的各种理论描述中，这些定律可能以看似不同的形式表达出来，但最著名的表述是以下几种。

--厚朴（讨论） 2020年7月20日 (一) 10:05 (CST) set翻译成一集 prominent翻译成著名？

--天天 2022年4月22日（五）09：00（CST）已对set、prominent的翻译做修正。

Zeroth Law 第零定律

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

热力学第零定律Zeroth law of thermodynamics指出：如果两个系统分别与第三个系统处于热平衡状态，那么它们彼此也处于热平衡状态。

This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g. Brownian motion) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in time.^[25] The law provides an empirical definition of temperature, and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.

This statement implies that thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on the set of thermodynamic systems under consideration. Systems are said to be in equilibrium if the small, random exchanges between them (e.g. Brownian motion) do not lead to a net change in energy. This law is tacitly assumed in every measurement of temperature. Thus, if one seeks to decide whether two bodies are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring them into contact and measure any changes of their observable properties in time. The law provides an empirical definition of temperature, and justification for the construction of practical thermometers.

这种说法意味着，热平衡是所考虑的热力学系统集合上的等价关系。如果系统之间的小的、如果系统之间的小规模的随机交换（如布朗运动）不导致能量的净变化，则系统被视作处于平衡状态。在每次温度测量中，这个定律都是被默认的。因此，如果人们试图判断两个物体是否处于相同的温度，就没有必要让它们接触，并测量它们在时间上的、任何可观察的属性变化。^[25] 该定律提供了温度的经验定义，并为实用温度计的发明提供了理论依据。

The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other laws, it was named the zeroth law.

The zeroth law was not initially recognized as a separate law of thermodynamics, as its basis in thermodynamical equilibrium was implied in the other laws. The first, second, and third laws had been explicitly stated already, and found common acceptance in the physics community before the importance of the zeroth law for the definition of temperature was realized. As it was impractical to renumber the other laws, it was named the zeroth law.

第零定律最初并没有被认为是一个独立的热力学定律，因为它在热力学平衡中的基础已经隐含在其他定律中。第一定律、第二定律和第三定律在第零定律对温度定义的重要性被意识到之前，已经被物理学界明确地阐述，并且得到了普遍接受。由于对其他定律进行重新编号是不切实际的，因此这个定律被命名为第零定律。

--厚朴（讨论） 2020年7月20日 (一) 10:05 (CST)法律 Law检查一遍

--天天 2022年4月22日（五）09：08（CST）已对law的翻译做修正

First Law 第一定律

The first law of thermodynamics states: In a process without transfer of matter, the change in internal energy, $Δ U$ , of a thermodynamic system is equal to the energy gained as heat, $Q$ , less the thermodynamic work, $W$ , done by the system on its surroundings.^[26]^{[nb 1]}

The first law of thermodynamics states: In a process without transfer of matter, the change in internal energy, , of a thermodynamic system is equal to the energy gained as heat, , less the thermodynamic work, , done by the system on its surroundings.

热力学第一定律First law of thermodynamics指出：在一个没有物质转移的过程中，热力学系统的内能 [math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U }[/math]变化等于作为热量获得的能量[math]\displaystyle{ Q }[/math]减去系统对其周围环境所做的功[math]\displaystyle{ W }[/math]：^[26]^{[nb 1]}

[math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U = Q - W }[/math]

For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

对于包含物质转移的过程，需要进一步阐述。在适当考虑了系统各自的基准参考状态的情况下，当两个系统（它们可能具有不同的化学组分，最初只是被不透水的墙面隔开，并且在其他方面是隔离的）通过移除墙面的热力学操作而结合成一个新系统时，则有

[math]\displaystyle{ U_0 = U_1 + U_2 }[/math]，

where $U 0$ denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and $U 1$ and $U 2$ denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.

where denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and and denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.

其中[math]\displaystyle{ U }[/math]表示组合系统的内能，[math]\displaystyle{ U_1 }[/math]和[math]\displaystyle{ U_2 }[/math]表示各自分离系统的内能。

Adapted for thermodynamics, this law is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.^[27]

Adapted for thermodynamics, this law is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be created or destroyed.

这一定律在热力学领域是能量守恒定律的一种表述，它指出能量可以转化（从一种形式变为另一种形式），但不能被创造或破坏。^[27]

Internal energy is a principal property of the thermodynamic state, while heat and work are modes of energy transfer by which a process may change this state. A change of internal energy of a system may be achieved by any combination of heat added or removed and work performed on or by the system. As a function of state, the internal energy does not depend on the manner, or on the path through intermediate steps, by which the system arrived at its state.

内能是热力学状态Thermodynamic state的一个主要属性，而热量和功是能量转化的模式，一个热力学过程可以通过这个模式改变内能。系统内部能量的变化可以通过添加或移除热量，和对该系统进行任意操作来实现。作为状态的函数，内能并不取决于系统到达其状态的方式或中间步骤的路径。

Second Law 第二定律

The second law of thermodynamics states: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.^[20]

The second law of thermodynamics states: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.

热力学第二定律Second law of thermodynamics指出：热量不能自发地从较冷的地方流向较热的地方。^[20]

This law is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature. The second law is an observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend to even out in a physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However, principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle.^[28]^[29] It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.^[30]

This law is an expression of the universal principle of decay observable in nature. The second law is an observation of the fact that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend to even out in a physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. However, principles guiding systems that are far from equilibrium are still debatable. One of such principles is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that non-equilibrium systems behave such a way as to maximize its entropy production.

这一定律是对自然界中可观察到的普遍衰变原则的表达。第二定律是对这样一个事实的观察：随着时间的推移，在一个与外界隔绝的物理系统中，温度、压力和化学势的差异趋于均衡。熵是对这一过程进展程度的一种度量。一个不处于平衡状态的孤立系统的熵将随着时间的推移而趋于增加，最终在平衡状态时达到最大值。然而，对于最初远离热力学平衡的系统，这个理论仍然是存在争议的。其中一个原则就是最大熵产生原则。^[28]^[29] 它指出，非平衡系统的行为方式会使其产生的熵最大化。^[30]

In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving heat energy transfer; in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is a consequence of the assumed randomness of molecular chaos. There are many versions of the second law, but they all have the same effect, which is to explain the phenomenon of irreversibility in nature.

在经典热力学中，第二定律是适用于任何涉及热能传递的系统的基本假设；在统计热力学中，第二定律是假设分子混沌的随机性的结果。第二定律有许多版本，但它们都具有相同的效果，那就是解释自然界中的不可逆现象。

Third Law 第三定律

The third law of thermodynamics states: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.

The third law of thermodynamics states: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a minimum value.

热力学第三定律Third law of thermodynamics指出：当一个系统的温度接近绝对零度时，所有的过程都会停止，系统的熵接近最小值。

This law of thermodynamics is a statistical law of nature regarding entropy and the impossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. This law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is the absolute entropy. Alternate definitions include "the entropy of all systems and of all states of a system is smallest at absolute zero," or equivalently "it is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature by any finite number of processes".

这一热力学定律是关于熵和不可能达到绝对零度的温度的自然统计定律。这一定律为熵的确定提供了一个绝对的参考点。相对于这个点确定的熵就是绝对熵。其他定义包括“所有系统和系统所有状态的熵在绝对零度时最小”，以及“通过任何有限数量的过程都不可能达到温度的绝对零度”。

Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to achieve, is −273.15 °C (degrees Celsius), or −459.67 °F (degrees Fahrenheit), or 0 K (kelvin), or 0° R (degrees Rankine).

如果有可能实现的话，所有活动都会在绝对零度时停止，即-273.15 °C（摄氏度Degrees Celsius），或-459.67 °F（华氏度Degrees Fahrenheit），或0 K（开尔文Kelvin），或0°R（朗肯度Degrees Rankine）。

System models 系统模型

文件:System boundary.svg

A diagram of a generic thermodynamic system

An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may be a physical boundary or notional, but which by convention defines a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings take place across this boundary.

An important concept in thermodynamics is the thermodynamic system, which is a precisely defined region of the universe under study. Everything in the universe except the system is called the surroundings. A system is separated from the remainder of the universe by a boundary which may be a physical boundary or notional, but which by convention defines a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings take place across this boundary.

热力学的一个重要概念是热力学系统Thernodynamic system，它是我们所研究的宇宙中的一个精确定义的区域。除了这个系统之外，宇宙中的一切都被称为周围环境Surroundings。一个系统与宇宙中的其余部分被一个边界分隔开，这个边界可能是一个物理边界，也可能只是一个名义上的边界，但是按照惯例，系统被限制在有限的体积内。系统和周围环境之间的功、热或物质的交换是在这个边界上进行的。

In practice, the boundary of a system is simply an imaginary dotted line drawn around a volume within which is going to be a change in the internal energy of that volume. Anything that passes across the boundary that effects a change in the internal energy of the system needs to be accounted for in the energy balance equation. The volume can be the region surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824; it can be the body of a tropical cyclone, such as Kerry Emanuel theorized in 1986 in the field of atmospheric thermodynamics; it could also be just one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics, or the event horizon of a black hole.

实际上，一个系统的边界只是根据其体积画的一条假想的虚线，在这个体积内，它的内能将会发生变化。任何穿过边界影响系统内能变化的东西，都需要在系统的能量平衡方程中加以说明。这个体积可以是一个原子共振能量周围的区域，这是马克思·普朗克（Max Planck）在1900年定义的；它可以是蒸汽机中的蒸汽或空气，这是萨迪·卡诺（Sadi Carnot）在1824年定义的；它可以是热带气旋的的主要组分，这是凯里·伊曼纽尔（Kerry Emanuel）在1986年在大气热力学领域中建立的理论；正如量子热力学中所假设的那样，它也可以只是一个核素Nuclide（即夸克系统），或黑洞视界。

Boundaries are of four types: fixed, movable, real, and imaginary. For example, in an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at its position, within which a constant volume process might occur. If the piston is allowed to move that boundary is movable while the cylinder and cylinder head boundaries are fixed. For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open systems boundaries are often imaginary. In the case of a jet engine, a fixed imaginary boundary might be assumed at the intake of the engine, fixed boundaries along the surface of the case and a second fixed imaginary boundary across the exhaust nozzle.

边界有四种类型：固定的、可移动的、真实的和虚构的。例如，在发动机中，一个固定的边界意味着活塞被锁定在其位置上，在这个位置上可能只发生定容过程。如果活塞被允许移动，那么边界就是可移动的，但此时气缸和气缸盖的边界依然是固定的。对于封闭系统来说，边界是真实的，而对于开放系统来说，边界往往是虚构的。对于喷气发动机来说，可以假定在发动机进气口处有一个固定的虚边界，沿着机壳表面有一个固定的边界，在排气口处有第二个固定的虚边界。

Generally, thermodynamics distinguishes three classes of systems, defined in terms of what is allowed to cross their boundaries:

一般来说，热力学区分了三类系统，这是根据允许什么东西穿越它们的边界来定义的：

Interactions of thermodynamic systems
Type of system	Mass flow	Work	Heat
Open	Y	Y	Y
Closed	N	Y	Y
Thermally isolated	N	Y	N
Mechanically isolated	N	N	Y
Isolated	N	N	N

As time passes in an isolated system, internal differences of pressures, densities, and temperatures tend to even out. A system in which all equalizing processes have gone to completion is said to be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.

在一个孤立的系统中，随着时间的推移，压力、密度和温度的内部差异趋于平衡。一个所有平衡过程均已完成的系统被认为是处于热力学平衡状态的。

Once in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than are systems which are not in equilibrium. Often, when analysing a dynamic thermodynamic process, the simplifying assumption is made that each intermediate state in the process is at equilibrium, producing thermodynamic processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state and are said to be reversible processes.

根据定义，一旦一个系统处于热力学平衡状态，其属性在时间上是不变的。处于平衡状态的系统比不处于平衡状态的系统要简单得多，也更容易理解。通常来说，在分析一个动态热力学过程时，会做出这样的简化假设：过程中的每一个中间状态都处于平衡状态，而产生的热力学过程发展得如此缓慢，以至于每一个中间步骤都是一个平衡状态，可以认为这是一个可逆过程Reversible processes。

States and processes 状态和过程

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite thermodynamic state. The state of the system can be described by a number of state quantities that do not depend on the process by which the system arrived at its state. They are called intensive variables or extensive variables according to how they change when the size of the system changes. The properties of the system can be described by an equation of state which specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.

当一个系统在一组给定的条件下处于平衡状态时，它被认为处于一个确定的热力学状态。系统的状态可以用许多状态量来描述，这些状态量并不取决于系统到达这个状态的过程。根据它们在系统规模变化时的变化情况，它们被称为强度量Intensive variables或广延量Extensive variables。系统的属性可以通过物态方程来描述，它阐明了这些变量之间的关系。状态可以被认为是对一个系统的瞬时定量描述，其中有一定数量的变量会保持不变。

A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. It can be described by process quantities. Typically, each thermodynamic process is distinguished from other processes in energetic character according to what parameters, such as temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed; Furthermore, it is useful to group these processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair.

热力学过程Thermodynamic process可以被定义为热力学系统从初始状态到最终状态的能量演变。它可以用过程量Process quantities来描述。每个热力学过程可以根据某些变量，如温度、压力或体积等，在能量特性上与其他过程区分开来；此外，将这些过程分组成对是十分有益的，其中每个保持常量的变量都是共轭对的一个部分。

Several commonly studied thermodynamic processes are:

几个常见的热力学过程是：

Adiabatic process: occurs without loss or gain of energy by heat

Isenthalpic process: occurs at a constant enthalpy

Isentropic process: a reversible adiabatic process, occurs at a constant entropy

Isobaric process: occurs at constant pressure

Isochoric process: occurs at constant volume (also called isometric/isovolumetric)

Isothermal process: occurs at a constant temperature

Steady state process: occurs without a change in the internal energy

绝热过程Adiabatic process：发生时没有热能的得到或损失。

等焓过程Isenthalpic process：发生时焓是恒定的。

等熵过程Isentropic process：一个可逆的绝热过程，发生时熵是恒定的。

等压过程Isobaric process：发生在恒压下。

等长过程Isochoric process：发生在恒定体积下（也叫等体或等容过程）。

等温过程Isothermal process：发生在恒定的温度下。

稳态过程Steady state process：发生时没有内能的变化。

Instrumentation 仪器设备

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas law pV=nRT, the volume of such a sample can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.

有两种类型的热力学仪器，即仪表和储存器。热力学仪表是测量热力学系统的任何参数的装置。在某些情况下，热力学参数实际上是利用理想化的测量仪器定义的。例如，第零定律Zeroth law指出，如果两个物体分别与第三个物体处于热平衡状态，那么它们两个也在热平衡状态之中。正如詹姆斯·麦克斯韦（James Maxwell）在1872年指出，这个原理断言“测量温度是可能的”。理想温度计是展示恒定压力下的理想气体的样品。根据理想气体定律[math]\displaystyle{ pV=nRT }[/math]来看，这样一个样品的体积可以作为温度高低的指标；它以这种方式定义了温度。尽管压力是通过机械方式定义的，但也可以用恒定温度下的理想气体样品制造一个压力测量装置，即气压计。量热仪是一种用于测量和定义系统内能的装置。

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that its state parameters are not appreciably altered when it is brought into contact with the system of interest. When the reservoir is brought into contact with the system, the system is brought into equilibrium with the reservoir. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular pressure, which imposes that pressure upon the system to which it is mechanically connected. The Earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir. If ocean water is used to cool a power plant, the ocean is often a temperature reservoir in the analysis of the power plant cycle.

热力学储存器是一个很大的系统，当它被吸引而与某个系统接触时，其状态参数不会发生明显的变化。当其与系统接触时，系统与热力学储存器会达到平衡。例如，压力储存器是一个处于特定压力下的系统，它将压力强加给与之机械连接的系统。地球的大气层经常被用作压力储存器。如果海水被用来冷却发电厂，在对发电厂循环的分析中，海洋往往是一个温度储存器的存在。

Conjugate variables 共轭变量

The central concept of thermodynamics is that of energy, the ability to do work. By the First Law, the total energy of a system and its surroundings is conserved. Energy may be transferred into a system by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a system by cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. In mechanics, for example, energy transfer equals the product of the force applied to a body and the resulting displacement.

热力学的核心概念是能量，即做功的能力。根据第一定律First law，一个系统及其周围环境的总能量是守恒的。能量可以通过加热、压缩或添加物质的方式转移到系统中，也可以通过冷却、膨胀或提取物质的方式从系统中提取。例如，在力学中，能量转移的量等于施加在一个物体上的力和由此产生的位移的乘积。

Conjugate variables are pairs of thermodynamic concepts, with the first being akin to a "force" applied to some thermodynamic system, the second being akin to the resulting "displacement," and the product of the two equalling the amount of energy transferred. The common conjugate variables are:

共轭变量Conjugate variables是一对热力学概念，第一个类似于施加在某个热力学系统上的 "力"，第二个类似于由此产生的“位移”，两者的乘积等于所转移的能量。常见的共轭变量有：

Pressure-volume (the mechanical parameters);

Temperature-entropy (thermal parameters);

Chemical potential-particle number (material parameters).
压力-体积（机械参数）；

温度-熵（热参数）；

化学势-粒子数（材料参数）。

Potentials 势

Thermodynamic potentials are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials are used to measure the energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. For example, the Helmholtz and Gibbs energies are the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the pressure and temperature are fixed, respectively.

热力学势Thermodynamic potential是对系统中储存的能量的不同的定量测量。势被用来测量系统从初始状态演化到最终状态时的能量变化。所用的势取决于系统的约束条件，如恒温或恒压。例如，亥姆霍兹能和吉布斯能分别是当温度和体积或压力和温度固定时，系统中用于做有用功的能量。

The five most well known potentials are:

五个最著名的势是：

Name	Symbol	Formula	Natural variables
Internal energy	[math]\displaystyle{ U }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ \int ( T \text{d}S - p \text{d}V + \sum_i \mu_i \text{d}N_i ) }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ S, V, \{N_i\} }[/math]
Helmholtz free energy	[math]\displaystyle{ F }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ U - TS }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ T, V, \{N_i\} }[/math]
Enthalpy	[math]\displaystyle{ H }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ U + pV }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ S, p, \{N_i\} }[/math]
Gibbs free energy	[math]\displaystyle{ G }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ U + pV - TS }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ T, p, \{N_i\} }[/math]
Landau potential, or grand potential	[math]\displaystyle{ \Omega }[/math], [math]\displaystyle{ \Phi_\text{G} }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ U - T S - }[/math][math]\displaystyle{ \sum_i\, }[/math][math]\displaystyle{ \mu_i N_i }[/math]	[math]\displaystyle{ T, V, \{\mu_i\} }[/math]

where [math]\displaystyle{ T }[/math] is the temperature, [math]\displaystyle{ S }[/math] the entropy, [math]\displaystyle{ p }[/math] the pressure, [math]\displaystyle{ V }[/math] the volume, [math]\displaystyle{ \mu }[/math] the chemical potential, [math]\displaystyle{ N }[/math] the number of particles in the system, and [math]\displaystyle{ i }[/math] is the count of particles types in the system.

其中 [math]\displaystyle{ T }[/math] 是温度，[math]\displaystyle{ S }[/math]是熵，[math]\displaystyle{ p }[/math]是压力，[math]\displaystyle{ V }[/math] 是体积，[math]\displaystyle{ \mu }[/math] 是化学势，[math]\displaystyle{ N }[/math]是系统中粒子的数量，[math]\displaystyle{ i }[/math]是系统中粒子类型的数量。

Thermodynamic potentials can be derived from the energy balance equation applied to a thermodynamic system. Other thermodynamic potentials can also be obtained through Legendre transformation.

热力学势可以从应用于热力学系统的能量平衡方程推导出来。其他热力学势也可以通过勒让德变换Legendre transformation得到。

Applied fields 应用领域

{ columns-list colwidth 22em

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Notes 注释

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 The sign convention (Q is heat supplied to the system as, W is work done by the system) is that of Rudolf Clausius. The opposite sign convention is customary in chemical thermodynamics.

符号约定（Q是提供给系统的热量，W是系统做的功）是鲁道夫· 劳修斯（Rudolf Clausius）约定的惯例。相反的符号约定在化学热力学中是惯例。

References 参考资料

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint). ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232. https://books.google.com/books?id=nWMSAAAAIAAJ&q=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+Founded+on+Carnot%E2%80%99s+Theory&pg=PA100.
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 Gibbs, Willard, J. (1874–1878). Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. III. New Haven. pp. 108–248, 343–524. https://archive.org/details/transactions03conn.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications, Hermann, Paris.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 ^5.3 Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923). Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.. https://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsfr00gnle.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Guggenheim, E.A. (1933). Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs, Methuen, London.
↑ ^7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 ^7.3 Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Ilya Prigogine, I. & Defay, R., translated by D.H. Everett (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. Longmans, Green & Co., London. Includes classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics..
↑ ^9.0 ^9.1 Enrico Fermi (1956). Thermodynamics. Courier Dover Publications. p. ix. ISBN 978-0486603612. OCLC 230763036. https://books.google.com/books?id=VEZ1ljsT3IwC&q=thermodynamics.
↑ ^10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856552-9. OCLC 123283342.
↑ ^11.0 ^11.1 Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5. OCLC 58732844.
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 Van Ness, H.C. (1983) [1969]. Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 9780486632773. OCLC 8846081. https://archive.org/details/understandingthe00vann.
↑ ^13.0 ^13.1 Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-7484-0569-5. OCLC 36457809.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. 27. p. 584. Bibcode 1950JChEd..27..584S. doi:10.1021/ed027p584.3. ISBN 978-0-07-310445-4. OCLC 56491111.
↑ ^15.0 ^15.1 Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79549-4. OCLC 43993556.
↑ Schools of thermodynamics – EoHT.info.
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 Partington, J.R. (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. Dover. OCLC 19353301. https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4.
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-310768-4.
↑ ^20.0 ^20.1 ^20.2 ^20.3 ^20.4 ^20.5 A New Kind of Science Note (b) for Irreversibility and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
↑ ^21.0 ^21.1 Gibbs, Willard (1993). The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 978-0-918024-77-0. OCLC 27974820.
↑ ^22.0 ^22.1 ^22.2 ^22.3 ^22.4 {{cite web The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.<ref name=eoht>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics |url=http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics Http://www.eoht.info/page/thermo-dynamics |title=Thermodynamics (etymology) |title=Thermodynamics (etymology) | 题目: 热力学(词源) |publisher=EoHT.info |publisher=EoHT.info 出版商 EoHT.info }}
↑ ^23.0 ^23.1 {{cite book American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root θέρμη therme, meaning “heat”, and δύναμις dynamis, meaning “power”. 美国生物物理学家唐纳德 · 海尼（Donald Haynie）认为，热力学是在1840年从希腊语词根θέρμη（意为“热”）和δύναμις（意为“功率”）中创造出来的。 <ref>{{cite book 文档{ cite book |title=Biological Thermodynamics |title=Biological Thermodynamics 生物热力学 |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn Https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn |url-access=registration |url-access=registration 访问注册 |edition=2 |edition=2 第二版 |author=Donald T. Haynie |author=Donald T. Haynie 作者唐纳德 · t · 海尼 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publisher=Cambridge University Press 剑桥大学出版社 |year=2008 |year=2008 2008年 |page=26 |page=26 [ https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn/page/2626] }}
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2.Scanned Copy
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th ed. Wiley and Sons: 16.

↑ ^26.0 ^26.1 Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics, AIP Press, Woodbury NY, , p. 79.

↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken NY, , pp. 11–13.

↑ ^28.0 ^28.1 Onsager, Lars (1931). "Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes". Phys. Rev. 37 (405): 405–426. Bibcode:1931PhRv...37..405O. doi:10.1103/physrev.37.405.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 Ziegler, H. (1983). An Introduction to Thermomechanics. North Holland.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 Belkin, Andrey; Hubler, A.; Bezryadin, A. (2015). "Self-Assembled Wiggling Nano-Structures and the Principle of Maximum Entropy Production". Sci. Rep. 5: 8323. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8323B. doi:10.1038/srep08323. PMC 4321171. PMID 25662746.

External links 外部链接

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12px "Thermodynamics". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 808–814.

Thermodynamics Data & Property Calculation Websites

Thermodynamics Educational Websites

Thermodynamics at ScienceWorld

Biochemistry Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics

Engineering Thermodynamics – A Graphical Approach

Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics by Richard Fitzpatrick

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Category:Chemical engineering

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分类: 物理学的子领域

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Thermodynamics. Its edit history can be viewed at 热力学/edithistory

[:0-27] 1.0 ^1.1 The sign convention (Q is heat supplied to the system as, W is work done by the system) is that of Rudolf Clausius. The opposite sign convention is customary in chemical thermodynamics.

[:0-1] 1.0 ^1.1 Clausius, Rudolf (1850). On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat. Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik, LXXIX (Dover Reprint). ISBN 978-0-486-59065-3.

[kelvin1854-2] 2.0 ^2.1 William Thomson, LL.D. D.C.L., F.R.S. (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232. https://books.google.com/books?id=nWMSAAAAIAAJ&q=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+Founded+on+Carnot%E2%80%99s+Theory&pg=PA100.

[Gibbs_1876-3] 3.0 ^3.1 ^3.2 ^3.3 Gibbs, Willard, J. (1874–1878). Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. III. New Haven. pp. 108–248, 343–524. https://archive.org/details/transactions03conn.

[Duhem_1886-4] 4.0 ^4.1 ^4.2 ^4.3 Duhem, P.M.M. (1886). Le Potential Thermodynamique et ses Applications, Hermann, Paris.

[Lewis_Randall_1923-5] 5.0 ^5.1 ^5.2 ^5.3 Lewis, Gilbert N.; Randall, Merle (1923). Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.. https://archive.org/details/thermodynamicsfr00gnle.

[Guggenheim_1933-6] 6.0 ^6.1 ^6.2 ^6.3 Guggenheim, E.A. (1933). Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of J.W. Gibbs, Methuen, London.

[Guggenheim_1949.2F1967-7] 7.0 ^7.1 ^7.2 ^7.3 Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967). Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 1st edition 1949, 5th edition 1967, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

[:1-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Ilya Prigogine, I. & Defay, R., translated by D.H. Everett (1954). Chemical Thermodynamics. Longmans, Green & Co., London. Includes classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics..

[Fermi-9] 9.0 ^9.1 Enrico Fermi (1956). Thermodynamics. Courier Dover Publications. p. ix. ISBN 978-0486603612. OCLC 230763036. https://books.google.com/books?id=VEZ1ljsT3IwC&q=thermodynamics.

[Perrot-10] 10.0 ^10.1 ^10.2 ^10.3 ^10.4 Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856552-9. OCLC 123283342.

[:2-11] 11.0 ^11.1 Clark, John, O.E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-4616-5. OCLC 58732844.

[:3-12] 12.0 ^12.1 Van Ness, H.C. (1983) [1969]. Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications, Inc.. ISBN 9780486632773. OCLC 8846081. https://archive.org/details/understandingthe00vann.

[:4-13] 13.0 ^13.1 Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-7484-0569-5. OCLC 36457809.

[:5-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Smith, J.M.; Van Ness, H.C.; Abbott, M.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. 27. p. 584. Bibcode 1950JChEd..27..584S. doi:10.1021/ed027p584.3. ISBN 978-0-07-310445-4. OCLC 56491111.

[:6-15] 15.0 ^15.1 Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79549-4. OCLC 43993556.

[autogenerated1-16] Schools of thermodynamics – EoHT.info.

[:7-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Partington, J.R. (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. Dover. OCLC 19353301. https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4.

[:8-18] 18.0 ^18.1 The Newcomen engine was improved from 1711 until Watt's work, making the efficiency comparison subject to qualification, but the increase from the 1865 version was on the order of 100%.

[:9-19] 19.0 ^19.1 Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-310768-4.

[NKS_note_b-20] 20.0 ^20.1 ^20.2 ^20.3 ^20.4 ^20.5 A New Kind of Science Note (b) for Irreversibility and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

[:10-21] 21.0 ^21.1 Gibbs, Willard (1993). The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume One: Thermodynamics. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 978-0-918024-77-0. OCLC 27974820.

[eoht-22] 22.0 ^22.1 ^22.2 ^22.3 ^22.4 {{cite web The etymology of thermodynamics has an intricate history.<ref name=eoht>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics |url=http://www.eoht.info/page/Thermo-dynamics Http://www.eoht.info/page/thermo-dynamics |title=Thermodynamics (etymology) |title=Thermodynamics (etymology) | 题目: 热力学(词源) |publisher=EoHT.info |publisher=EoHT.info 出版商 EoHT.info }}

[:11-23] 23.0 ^23.1 {{cite book American biophysicist Donald Haynie claims that thermodynamics was coined in 1840 from the Greek root θέρμη therme, meaning “heat”, and δύναμις dynamis, meaning “power”. 美国生物物理学家唐纳德 · 海尼（Donald Haynie）认为，热力学是在1840年从希腊语词根θέρμη（意为“热”）和δύναμις（意为“功率”）中创造出来的。 <ref>{{cite book 文档{ cite book |title=Biological Thermodynamics |title=Biological Thermodynamics 生物热力学 |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn |url=https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn Https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn |url-access=registration |url-access=registration 访问注册 |edition=2 |edition=2 第二版 |author=Donald T. Haynie |author=Donald T. Haynie 作者唐纳德 · t · 海尼 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publisher=Cambridge University Press 剑桥大学出版社 |year=2008 |year=2008 2008年 |page=26 |page=26 [ https://archive.org/details/biologicalthermo0000hayn/page/2626] }}

[kelvin1849-24] 24.0 ^24.1 ^24.2 ^24.3 Kelvin, William T. (1849) "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat – with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2.Scanned Copy

[:12-25] 25.0 ^25.1 Moran, Michael J. and Howard N. Shapiro, 2008. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th ed. Wiley and Sons: 16.

[:13-26] 26.0 ^26.1 Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics, AIP Press, Woodbury NY, , p. 79.
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[:14-28] 27.0 ^27.1 Callen, H.B. (1960/1985).Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken NY, , pp. 11–13.
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[:15-29] 28.0 ^28.1 Onsager, Lars (1931). "Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes". Phys. Rev. 37 (405): 405–426. Bibcode:1931PhRv...37..405O. doi:10.1103/physrev.37.405.

[:16-30] 29.0 ^29.1 Ziegler, H. (1983). An Introduction to Thermomechanics. North Holland.

[:17-31] 30.0 ^30.1 Belkin, Andrey; Hubler, A.; Bezryadin, A. (2015). "Self-Assembled Wiggling Nano-Structures and the Principle of Maximum Entropy Production". Sci. Rep. 5: 8323. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8323B. doi:10.1038/srep08323. PMC 4321171. PMID 25662746.

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