此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共3365，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

The 1698 Savery Engine – the world's first commercially useful steam engine: built by Thomas Savery

模板:Thermodynamics The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Owing to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magnetism, and chemical kinetics, to more distant applied fields such as meteorology, information theory, and biology (physiology), and to technological developments such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, cryogenics and electricity generation. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by atomic theory. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in probability and statistics; see, for example, the timeline of thermodynamics.

The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Owing to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely woven with the developments of classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, magnetism, and chemical kinetics, to more distant applied fields such as meteorology, information theory, and biology (physiology), and to technological developments such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, cryogenics and electricity generation. The development of thermodynamics both drove and was driven by atomic theory. It also, albeit in a subtle manner, motivated new directions in probability and statistics; see, for example, the timeline of thermodynamics.

热力学史是物理学史、化学史和一般科学史的基础。由于热力学在许多科学和技术中的相关性，它的历史与经典力学、量子力学、磁学和化学动力学的发展，以及更为遥远的应用领域，如气象学、信息理论和生物学(生理学) ，还有技术发展，如蒸汽机、内燃机、低温和电力生产等交织在一起。热力学的发展既是由原子理论推动的，也是由原子理论推动的。它还以一种微妙的方式，推动了概率和统计学的新方向; 例如，参见热力学发展时间线。

History

Contributions from antiquity

The ancients viewed heat as that related to fire. In 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians viewed heat as related to origin mythologies.^[1] The ancient Indian philosophy including Vedic philosophy believe that five basic elements are the basis of all cosmic creations.^[2] In the Western philosophical tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier pre-Socratic philosophers, Empedocles proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from earth, water, air, and fire. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as phlogin and caloric. Around 500 BC, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three principal elements in nature were fire, earth, and water.

文件:Thermally Agitated Molecule.gif

Heating a body, such as a segment of protein alpha helix (above), tends to cause its atoms to vibrate more, and to expand or change phase, if heating is continued; an axiom of nature noted by Herman Boerhaave in the 1700s.

The ancients viewed heat as that related to fire. In 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians viewed heat as related to origin mythologies. The ancient Indian philosophy including Vedic philosophy believe that five basic elements are the basis of all cosmic creations. In the Western philosophical tradition, after much debate about the primal element among earlier pre-Socratic philosophers, Empedocles proposed a four-element theory, in which all substances derive from earth, water, air, and fire. The Empedoclean element of fire is perhaps the principal ancestor of later concepts such as phlogin and caloric. Around 500 BC, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus became famous as the "flux and fire" philosopher for his proverbial utterance: "All things are flowing." Heraclitus argued that the three principal elements in nature were fire, earth, and water.

古人的贡献古人把热视为与火有关的东西。公元前3000年，古埃及人认为热量与起源神话有关。包括吠陀哲学在内的古印度哲学认为，五个基本元素是一切宇宙创造的基础。在西方哲学传统中，在早期苏格拉底之前的哲学家们对原始元素进行了大量的争论之后，恩培多克勒提出了一个四元素理论，其中所有的物质都起源于土、水、空气和火。火的 Empedoclean 元素可能是后来概念的主要祖先，如 phlogin 和卡路里。公元前500年左右，希腊哲学家赫拉克利特因其谚语“万物流动”而成为著名的“流动与火焰”哲学家赫拉克利特认为自然界的三个主要元素是火、土和水。

In the early modern period, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the caloric. Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term heat capacity, named and first investigated by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s.^[3]

In the early modern period, heat was thought to be a measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the caloric. Bodies were capable of holding a certain amount of this fluid, leading to the term heat capacity, named and first investigated by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s.

在现代早期，人们认为热量是一种看不见的流体，被称为热量。物体能够容纳一定量的这种流体，从而导致热容量这个术语，苏格兰化学家约瑟夫 · 布莱克在18世纪50年代首次对其进行了命名和研究。

In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists abandoned the idea of a physical caloric, and instead understood heat as a manifestation of a system's internal energy. Today heat is the transfer of disordered thermal energy. Nevertheless, at least in English, the term heat capacity survives. In some other languages, the term thermal capacity is preferred, and it is also sometimes used in English.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists abandoned the idea of a physical caloric, and instead understood heat as a manifestation of a system's internal energy. Today heat is the transfer of disordered thermal energy. Nevertheless, at least in English, the term heat capacity survives. In some other languages, the term thermal capacity is preferred, and it is also sometimes used in English.

在18世纪和19世纪，科学家们放弃了物理热量的概念，而是将热量理解为系统内部能量的表现形式。今天的热是无序热能的传递。然而，至少在英语中，热容这个术语仍然存在。在其他一些语言中，热容量这个术语是首选的，有时也用在英语中。

Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory^{[citation needed]}. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.

Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.

原子论是当今热力学与统计力学之间关系的核心部分。古代的思想家如勒基普斯和德谟克利特，以及后来的伊壁鸠鲁学派，通过原子论的发展，为后来的原子理论奠定了基础。直到20世纪原子的实验证明被提供之前，原子理论在很大程度上是由哲学思考和科学直觉驱动的。

The 5th century BC Greek philosopher Parmenides, in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled On Nature, uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a vacuum, in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of Aristotle, but was criticized by Leucippus and Hero of Alexandria. From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.

The 5th century BC Greek philosopher Parmenides, in his only known work, a poem conventionally titled On Nature, uses verbal reasoning to postulate that a void, essentially what is now known as a vacuum, in nature could not occur. This view was supported by the arguments of Aristotle, but was criticized by Leucippus and Hero of Alexandria. From antiquity to the Middle Ages various arguments were put forward to prove or disapprove the existence of a vacuum and several attempts were made to construct a vacuum but all proved unsuccessful.

公元前5世纪的希腊哲学家巴门尼德在他唯一已知的著作中，有一首题为《论自然》的诗，用语言推理来假定自然界中不可能存在真空，即现在所知的真空。这一观点得到了亚里士多德论点的支持，但却遭到了 Leucippus 和希罗的批评。从古代到中世纪，人们提出了各种各样的论点来证明或否定真空的存在，人们曾多次试图建立真空，但都以失败告终。

The European scientists Cornelius Drebbel, Robert Fludd, Galileo Galilei and Santorio Santorio in the 16th and 17th centuries were able to gauge the relative "coldness" or "hotness" of air, using a rudimentary air thermometer (or thermoscope). This may have been influenced by an earlier device which could expand and contract the air constructed by Philo of Byzantium and Hero of Alexandria.

16、17世纪，欧洲科学家克尼利厄斯·雅布斯纵·戴博尔 · 弗洛德、伽利略 · 伽利莱和桑托里奥 · 桑托里奥利用一个原始的空气温度计(或称温度计)测量了空气的相对“冷度”或“热度”。这可能受到了早期设备的影响，这种设备可以扩大和收缩费隆(拜占庭)和希罗建造的空气。

Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else." In 1643, Galileo Galilei, while generally accepting the 'sucking' explanation of horror vacui proposed by Aristotle, believed that nature's vacuum-abhorrence is limited. Pumps operating in mines had already proven that nature would only fill a vacuum with water up to a height of ~30 feet. Knowing this curious fact, Galileo encouraged his former pupil Evangelista Torricelli to investigate these supposed limitations. Torricelli did not believe that vacuum-abhorrence (Horror vacui) in the sense of Aristotle's 'sucking' perspective, was responsible for raising the water. Rather, he reasoned, it was the result of the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding air.

Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon surmised: "Heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else." In 1643, Galileo Galilei, while generally accepting the 'sucking' explanation of horror vacui proposed by Aristotle, believed that nature's vacuum-abhorrence is limited. Pumps operating in mines had already proven that nature would only fill a vacuum with water up to a height of ~30 feet. Knowing this curious fact, Galileo encouraged his former pupil Evangelista Torricelli to investigate these supposed limitations. Torricelli did not believe that vacuum-abhorrence (Horror vacui) in the sense of Aristotle's 'sucking' perspective, was responsible for raising the water. Rather, he reasoned, it was the result of the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding air.

大约在1600年，英国哲学家和科学家弗朗西斯 · 培根推测: “热本身，其本质和质量就是运动，没有别的。”1643年，伽利略虽然普遍接受亚里士多德对恐怖真空所提出的“吮吸式”解释，但他认为自然界对真空的厌恶是有限的。矿井中的水泵已经证明，大自然只会用30英尺高的水来填充真空。认识到这个奇怪的事实，伽利略鼓励他以前的学生埃万杰利斯塔·托里拆利去调查这些所谓的局限性。托里切利不相信亚里士多德“吮吸”观点中的真空厌恶(恐怖真空)是提高水位的原因。相反，他推断，这是周围空气对液体施加压力的结果。

To prove this theory, he filled a long glass tube (sealed at one end) with mercury and upended it into a dish also containing mercury. Only a portion of the tube emptied; ~30 inches of the liquid remained. As the mercury emptied, and a partial vacuum was created at the top of the tube. The gravitational force on the heavy element Mercury prevented it from filling the vacuum.

为了证明这个理论，他在一根长长的玻璃管(一端密封)里装满了水银，并将其倒置到一个同样含有水银的盘子里。只有一部分管子排空了，剩下约30英寸的液体。随着水银的排空，在管子顶部形成了部分真空。重元素水银上的引力阻止了它填充真空。

Transition from chemistry to thermochemistry

文件:Ice-calorimeter.jpg

The world's first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782–83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat evolved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black's prior discovery of latent heat. These experiments mark the foundation of thermochemistry.^{[citation needed]}

The theory of phlogiston arose in the 17th century, late in the period of alchemy. Its replacement by caloric theory in the 18th century is one of the historical markers of the transition from alchemy to chemistry. Phlogiston was a hypothetical substance that was presumed to be liberated from combustible substances during burning, and from metals during the process of rusting. Caloric, like phlogiston, was also presumed to be the "substance" of heat that would flow from a hotter body to a cooler body, thus warming it.

从化学到热化学的过渡燃素理论产生于17世纪晚期的炼金术时期。它在18世纪被热量理论所取代，是从炼金术向化学过渡的历史标志之一。燃素是一种假设的物质，据推测在燃烧过程中从可燃物质中释放出来，在生锈过程中从金属中释放出来。热量，如燃素，也被认为是热的“物质”，从一个较热的物体流向一个较冷的物体，从而加热它。

The first substantial experimental challenges to caloric theory arose in Rumford's 1798 work, when he showed that boring cast iron cannons produced great amounts of heat which he ascribed to friction, and his work was among the first to undermine the caloric theory. The development of the steam engine also focused attention on calorimetry and the amount of heat produced from different types of coal. The first quantitative research on the heat changes during chemical reactions was initiated by Lavoisier using an ice calorimeter following research by Joseph Black on the latent heat of water.

卡路里理论的第一个实验性挑战出现在拉姆福德1798年的工作中，当时他表明，无聊的铸铁大炮产生大量的热量，他归因于摩擦，他的工作是首先破坏卡路里理论。蒸汽机的发展也把注意力集中在量热学和不同类型的煤所产生的热量上。在约瑟夫 · 布莱克关于水的潜热的研究之后，拉瓦锡首次用冰量热计对化学反应过程中的热量变化进行了定量研究。

More quantitative studies by James Prescott Joule in 1843 onwards provided soundly reproducible phenomena, and helped to place the subject of thermodynamics on a solid footing. William Thomson, for example, was still trying to explain Joule's observations within a caloric framework as late as 1850. The utility and explanatory power of kinetic theory, however, soon started to displace caloric and it was largely obsolete by the end of the 19th century. Joseph Black and Lavoisier made important contributions in the precise measurement of heat changes using the calorimeter, a subject which became known as thermochemistry.

詹姆斯·普雷斯科特·焦耳在1843年以后进行了更多的定量研究，提供了可以很好地重现的现象，并且有助于把热力学这门学科建立在坚实的基础上。例如，直到1850年，威廉 · 汤姆森仍在试图解释焦耳在热量框架内的观察。然而，动力学理论的实用性和解释力，很快就开始替换热量，到19世纪末，它基本上已经过时了。约瑟夫 · 布莱克和拉瓦锡在使用热量计精确测量热量变化方面做出了重要贡献，这一学科后来被称为热化学。

Phenomenological thermodynamics

文件:Robert Boyle 0001.jpg

Robert Boyle. 1627–1691

Boyle's law (1662)
Charles's law was first published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by Jacques Charles from around 1787. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of Guillaume Amontons in 1702.
Gay-Lussac's law (1802)

thumb|150px|left|Robert Boyle. 1627–1691

Boyle's law (1662)
Charles's law was first published by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, but he referenced unpublished work by Jacques Charles from around 1787. The relationship had been anticipated by the work of Guillaume Amontons in 1702.
Gay-Lussac's law (1802)

= = = 现象学热力学 = = = 拇指 | 150px | 左 | 罗伯特 · 波义耳。1627-1691

波义耳定律(1662)
查尔斯定律最早由约瑟夫·路易·盖-吕萨克于1802年发表，但他引用了1787年前后雅克 · 查尔斯未发表的著作。这种关系早在1702年吉劳米·阿芒顿的工作中就已经预见到了。
Gay-Lussac 法(1802)

Birth of thermodynamics as a science

Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: P.V=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring.^[4] Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law. But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.

Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation: P.V=constant. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring.New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law. But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle's named Denis Papin built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.

爱尔兰物理学家和化学家罗伯特 · 波义耳在1656年与英国科学家罗伯特 · 胡克合作建造了一个空气泵。波义耳和胡克利用这个泵，注意到了压力与体积的关系: P.V = 常数。在那个时候，空气被认为是一个静止的粒子系统，而不是一个运动的分子系统。两个世纪后，热运动的概念出现了。因此，波义耳在1660年的出版物中提到了一个机械概念: 空气弹簧。物理机械学的新实验，触摸空气的弹簧及其效应(1660)。后来，温度计的发明，性能温度可以量化。这个工具给盖-卢萨克提供了推导他的定律的机会，这个定律不久就导致了理想气体定律。但是，在理想气体定律建立之前，波义耳的同事丹尼斯 · 帕平在1679年建造了一个骨头消化器，这是一个封闭的容器，有一个紧密的盖子，限制蒸汽直到产生高压。

Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. This marks the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist was Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. This marks the start of thermodynamics as a modern science.

后来的设计实施了一个蒸汽释放阀，以防止机器爆炸。通过观察阀门有节奏地上下运动，帕平构思了活塞和汽缸发动机的概念。然而，他并没有坚持他的设计。然而，在1697年，工程师托马斯 · 萨弗里根据帕平的设计制造了第一台发动机。虽然这些早期的发动机粗糙和低效，他们吸引了当时的主要科学家的注意。其中一位科学家是 Sadi Carnot，“热力学之父”，他在1824年发表了一篇关于热、动力和发动机效率的论火的动力。这标志着热力学作为一门现代科学的开始。

文件:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg

A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world

Hence, prior to 1698 and the invention of the Savery Engine, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the Newcomen Engine, and later the Watt Engine. In time, these early engines would eventually be utilized in place of horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of "horse power" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work. In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield only a small fraction of work output. Hence the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born.

因此，在1698年发明萨弗里发动机之前，马匹被用于连接在水桶上的动力滑轮，它可以将水从淹没的英格兰盐矿中提出来。在接下来的几年里，建造了更多种蒸汽机，如纽科门蒸汽机和瓦特蒸汽机。随着时间的推移，这些早期的发动机最终将被用来代替马匹。因此，每台发动机开始与一定数量的“马力”相关联，这取决于它更换了多少匹马。这些第一代发动机的主要问题在于它们缓慢而笨拙，只能将不到2% 的输入燃料转化为有用的工作。换句话说，只有燃烧大量的煤(或木材)才能产生一小部分工作量。因此，需要一个新的科学发动机动力学诞生了。

文件:Carnot2.jpg

Sadi Carnot (1796–1832): the "father" of thermodynamics

Most cite Sadi Carnot's 1824 book Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science. Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing. Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "work": weight lifted through a height. The desire to understand, via formulation, this useful effect in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.

150px|left|thumb|Sadi Carnot (1796–1832): the "father" of thermodynamics Most cite Sadi Carnot's 1824 book Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire as the starting point for thermodynamics as a modern science. Carnot defined "motive power" to be the expression of the useful effect that a motor is capable of producing. Herein, Carnot introduced us to the first modern day definition of "work": weight lifted through a height. The desire to understand, via formulation, this useful effect in relation to "work" is at the core of all modern day thermodynamics.

150px | 左图 | 萨迪卡诺(1796-1832) : 热力学之父大多数人引用萨迪卡诺1824年出版的《论火的动力作为热力学作为现代科学的起点。卡诺将“动力”定义为马达能够产生的有用效果的表达。在这里，卡诺向我们介绍了“工作”的第一个现代定义: 通过高度举起的重量。通过公式理解这种与“功”有关的有用效应的愿望是所有现代热力学的核心。

In 1843, James Joule experimentally found the mechanical equivalent of heat. In 1845, Joule reported his best-known experiment, involving the use of a falling weight to spin a paddle-wheel in a barrel of water, which allowed him to estimate a mechanical equivalent of heat of 819 ft·lbf/Btu (4.41 J/cal). This led to the theory of conservation of energy and explained why heat can do work.

1843年，詹姆斯 · 焦耳在实验中发现了热的机械等效。1845年，Joule 报道了他最著名的实验，利用一个下落的重物在一桶水中旋转桨轮，这使他估计出相当于819英尺 lbf/Btu (4.41 j/cal)的机械热量。这导致了能量守恒理论，并解释了为什么热能做功。

In 1850, the famed mathematical physicist Rudolf Clausius coined the term "entropy" (das Wärmegewicht, symbolized S) to denote heat lost or turned into waste. ("Wärmegewicht" translates literally as "heat-weight"; the corresponding English term stems from the Greek τρέπω, "I turn".)

In 1850, the famed mathematical physicist Rudolf Clausius coined the term "entropy" (das Wärmegewicht, symbolized S) to denote heat lost or turned into waste. ("Wärmegewicht" translates literally as "heat-weight"; the corresponding English term stems from the Greek τρέπω, "I turn".)

1850年，著名的数学物理学家鲁道夫•克劳修斯(Rudolf Clausius)创造了“熵”(das Wärmegewicht，代表符号 s)这个术语，用来表示热量损失或变成废物。(“ Wärmegewicht”字面翻译为“ heat-weight”，相应的英语术语源自希腊语 τρsomething πω，“ i turn”。)

The name "thermodynamics", however, did not arrive until 1854, when the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) coined the term thermo-dynamics in his paper On the Dynamical Theory of Heat.^[5]

The name "thermodynamics", however, did not arrive until 1854, when the British mathematician and physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) coined the term thermo-dynamics in his paper On the Dynamical Theory of Heat. reprinted in Hence Thermo-dynamics falls naturally into two Divisions, of which the subjects are respectively, the relation of heat to the forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.

然而，“热力学”这个名称直到1854年才出现，当时英国数学家和物理学家威廉 · 汤姆森(开尔文勋爵)在他的论文《热力学的动力学理论》中创造了热力学这个术语。因此，热力学自然分为两个部分，分别是热量与相邻部分之间的作用力之间的关系，以及热量与电能之间的关系。

In association with Clausius, in 1871, the Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called Statistical Thermodynamics, which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at equilibrium, i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature T, pressure P, and volume V become important.

In association with Clausius, in 1871, the Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell formulated a new branch of thermodynamics called Statistical Thermodynamics, which functions to analyze large numbers of particles at equilibrium, i.e., systems where no changes are occurring, such that only their average properties as temperature T, pressure P, and volume V become important.

1871年，苏格兰数学家和物理学家克劳修斯联合提出了一个新的热力学分支---- 统计热力学，它的功能是分析大量处于平衡状态的粒子，即没有发生变化的系统，只有它们的平均性质如温度 t，压力 p 和体积 v 变得重要。

Soon thereafter, in 1875, the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann formulated a precise connection between entropy S and molecular motion:

此后不久，在1875年，奥地利物理学家路德维希·玻尔兹曼 · 马丁阐述了熵 s 和分子运动之间的精确联系:

[math]\displaystyle{ S=k\log W \, }[/math]

S=k\log W \,

s = k log w,

being defined in terms of the number of possible states [W] such motion could occupy, where k is the Boltzmann's constant.

根据这种运动可能占据的状态数来定义，其中 k 是玻尔兹曼常数。

The following year, 1876, chemical engineer Willard Gibbs published an obscure 300-page paper titled: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, wherein he formulated one grand equality, the Gibbs free energy equation, which suggested a measure of the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems. Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as enthalpy H, calling it "a heat function for constant pressure".^[6] The modern word enthalpy would be coined many years later by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,^[7] who based it on the Greek word enthalpein meaning to warm.

The following year, 1876, chemical engineer Willard Gibbs published an obscure 300-page paper titled: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, wherein he formulated one grand equality, the Gibbs free energy equation, which suggested a measure of the amount of "useful work" attainable in reacting systems. Gibbs also originated the concept we now know as enthalpy H, calling it "a heat function for constant pressure". The modern word enthalpy would be coined many years later by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who based it on the Greek word enthalpein meaning to warm.

接下来的一年，1876年，化学工程师 Willard Gibbs 发表了一篇300页的晦涩论文，题目是: 关于多相物质平衡，在这篇论文中，他阐述了一个重要的等式，即吉布斯自由能方程式，它提出了一个衡量反应系统中可以达到的“有用功”的标准。吉布斯还提出了我们现在所知的焓 h 的概念，称之为“恒压热函数”。现代的焓这个词在许多年后由海克·卡末林·昂内斯 · 马丁创造出来，他根据希腊词焓来命名它，意思是温暖。

Building on these foundations, those as Lars Onsager, Erwin Schrödinger, and Ilya Prigogine, and others, functioned to bring these engine "concepts" into the thoroughfare of almost every modern-day branch of science.

在这些基础上，像 Lars Onsager，埃尔温·薛定谔，和 Ilya Prigogine 等人，将这些引擎“概念”带到了几乎每一个现代科学分支的大道上。

Kinetic theory

The idea that heat is a form of motion is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum. The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by Mikhail Lomonosov, in which he wrote:

The idea that heat is a form of motion is perhaps an ancient one and is certainly discussed by Francis Bacon in 1620 in his Novum Organum. The first written scientific reflection on the microscopic nature of heat is probably to be found in a work by Mikhail Lomonosov, in which he wrote:

热是运动的一种形式，这个观点也许是一个古老的观点，弗朗西斯 · 培根在1620年的《新组织》一书中肯定讨论过这个观点。关于热的微观本质的第一次书面科学反思很可能出现在米哈伊尔·瓦西里耶维奇·罗蒙诺索夫的一部著作中，他在其中写道:

"(..) movement should not be denied based on the fact it is not seen. Who would deny that the leaves of trees move when rustled by a wind, despite it being unobservable from large distances? Just as in this case motion remains hidden due to perspective, it remains hidden in warm bodies due to the extremely small sizes of the moving particles. In both cases, the viewing angle is so small that neither the object nor their movement can be seen."

“(. .)运动不应该被否认，基于事实上它没有被看到。谁能否认树叶被风吹得沙沙作响时会移动，尽管从很远的地方是看不见的？正如在这种情况下，由于透视的原因，运动仍然隐藏在温暖的物体中，由于运动粒子的尺寸极小。在这两种情况下，视角都很小，物体和它们的运动都看不见。”

During the same years, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamics (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proved that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume.^{[citation needed]} Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with Gottfried Leibniz's vis viva principle, an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history. Though Benjamin Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion as a result of his experiments in 1798, no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the vis viva principle.

During the same years, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamics (1738), in which he derived an equation for the pressure of a gas considering the collisions of its atoms with the walls of a container. He proved that this pressure is two thirds the average kinetic energy of the gas in a unit volume. Bernoulli's ideas, however, made little impact on the dominant caloric culture. Bernoulli made a connection with Gottfried Leibniz's vis viva principle, an early formulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the two theories became intimately entwined throughout their history. Though Benjamin Thompson suggested that heat was a form of motion as a result of his experiments in 1798, no attempt was made to reconcile theoretical and experimental approaches, and it is unlikely that he was thinking of the vis viva principle.

同年，丹尼尔·伯努利出版了他的书《流体动力学》(1738) ，其中他推导出一个考虑到气体原子与容器壁碰撞的气体压力方程。他证明了这个压强是，单位体积内气体平均动能的三分之二。然而，伯努利的观点对主流的卡路里文化影响甚微。伯努利联系了戈特弗里德 · 莱布尼兹的对生原理，这是能量守恒原理的早期公式，两个理论在它们的历史中紧密地联系在一起。虽然本杰明·汤普森，伦福德伯爵在1798年的实验中提出热是运动的一种形式，但他并没有试图调和理论和实验的方法，也不太可能他在思考可见生命原理。

John Herapath later independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with momentum rather than vis viva or kinetic energy. His work ultimately failed peer review and was neglected. John James Waterston in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Davy模板:Ambiguous.

John Herapath later independently formulated a kinetic theory in 1820, but mistakenly associated temperature with momentum rather than vis viva or kinetic energy. His work ultimately failed peer review and was neglected. John James Waterston in 1843 provided a largely accurate account, again independently, but his work received the same reception, failing peer review even from someone as well-disposed to the kinetic principle as Davy.

约翰 · 赫拉帕斯后来在1820年独立阐述了一个动力学理论，但错误地把温度与动量联系起来，而不是与万能或动能联系起来。他的工作最终未能通过同行评议，并被忽视。1843年，约翰·詹姆斯·沃特斯顿提供了一个很大程度上准确的描述，同样是独立的，但他的工作得到了同样的接受，即使没有同行评议，甚至有人像戴维那样对动力学原理有着良好的倾向。

Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann. In his 1857 work On the nature of the motion called heat, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.

Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann. In his 1857 work On the nature of the motion called heat, Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.

动力学理论的进一步发展直到19世纪中叶才开始，鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯、詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦和路德维希·玻尔兹曼的工作。克劳修斯在1857年的著作《关于热运动的本质》中，第一次明确指出热是分子的平均动能。马克斯韦尔对此很感兴趣，他在1859年导出了动量分布，后来以他的名字命名。波尔兹曼随后将他的分布概括为外场中气体的情况。

Boltzmann is perhaps the most significant contributor to kinetic theory, as he introduced many of the fundamental concepts in the theory. Besides the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution mentioned above, he also associated the kinetic energy of particles with their degrees of freedom. The Boltzmann equation for the distribution function of a gas in non-equilibrium states is still the most effective equation for studying transport phenomena in gases and metals. By introducing the concept of thermodynamic probability as the number of microstates corresponding to the current macrostate, he showed that its logarithm is proportional to entropy.

玻尔兹曼也许是动力学理论最重要的贡献者，因为他介绍了该理论中的许多基本概念。除了上面提到的麦克斯韦-波兹曼分布，他还把粒子的动能和它们的自由度联系起来。气体在非平衡态分布函数的玻尔兹曼方程方程仍然是研究气体和金属中输运现象的最有效的方程。通过引入热力学概率的概念作为对应于当前宏观状态的微观状态数，他证明了它的对数与熵成正比。

Branches of thermodynamics

The following list is a rough disciplinary outline of the major branches of thermodynamics and their time of inception:

Thermochemistry – 1780s
Classical thermodynamics – 1824
Chemical thermodynamics – 1876
Statistical mechanics – c. 1880s
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Engineering thermodynamics
Chemical engineering thermodynamics – c. 1940s
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics – 1941
Small systems thermodynamics – 1960s
Biological thermodynamics – 1957
Ecosystem thermodynamics – 1959
Relativistic thermodynamics – 1965
Rational thermodynamics – 1960s
Quantum thermodynamics – 1968
Black hole thermodynamics – c. 1970s
Theory of critical phenomena and use of renormalization group theory in statistical physics – 1966-1974
Geological thermodynamics – c. 1970s
Biological evolution thermodynamics – 1978
Geochemical thermodynamics – c. 1980s
Atmospheric thermodynamics – c. 1980s
Natural systems thermodynamics – 1990s
Supramolecular thermodynamics – 1990s
Earthquake thermodynamics – 2000
Drug-receptor thermodynamics – 2001
Pharmaceutical systems thermodynamics – 2002

The following list is a rough disciplinary outline of the major branches of thermodynamics and their time of inception:

Thermochemistry – 1780s
Classical thermodynamics – 1824
Chemical thermodynamics – 1876
Statistical mechanics – c. 1880s
Equilibrium thermodynamics
Engineering thermodynamics
Chemical engineering thermodynamics – c. 1940s
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics – 1941
Small systems thermodynamics – 1960s
Biological thermodynamics – 1957
Ecosystem thermodynamics – 1959
Relativistic thermodynamics – 1965
Rational thermodynamics – 1960s
Quantum thermodynamics – 1968
Black hole thermodynamics – c. 1970s
Theory of critical phenomena and use of renormalization group theory in statistical physics – 1966-1974
Geological thermodynamics – c. 1970s
Biological evolution thermodynamics – 1978
Geochemical thermodynamics – c. 1980s
Atmospheric thermodynamics – c. 1980s
Natural systems thermodynamics – 1990s
Supramolecular thermodynamics – 1990s
Earthquake thermodynamics – 2000
Drug-receptor thermodynamics – 2001
Pharmaceutical systems thermodynamics – 2002

= = = 热力学分支 = = 热力学主要分支及其成立或创建时间的粗略学科大纲如下:

热化学-1780年代
经典热力学-1824年
化学热力学-1876年
统计力学-1880年代
平衡态热力学
工程化学工程热力学-c. 1940年代
非平衡态热力学-1941年代小系统热力学-1960年代生物热力学- 1957
生态系统热力学-1959
相对论热力学-1965
理性热力学-1960年代
量子热力学-1968
黑洞热力学-c. 1970年代
关于临界现象和热力学的理论重整化群理论在统计物理学中的应用-1966-1974
地质热力学-c. 1970年代
生物进化热力学-c. 1978
地球化学热力学-c. 1980年代
大气热力学-c. 1980年代
自然系统热力学-1990年代
超分子热力学-1990年代
地震热力学-2000
药物受体热力学-2001
药物系统热力学-2002

Concepts of thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:

Thermoeconomics – c. 1970s

Concepts of thermodynamics have also been applied in other fields, for example:

Thermoeconomics – c. 1970s

热力学的概念也应用于其他领域，例如:

热经济学-约1970年代

Entropy and the second law

Even though he was working with the caloric theory, Sadi Carnot in 1824 suggested that some of the caloric available for generating useful work is lost in any real process. In March 1851, while grappling to come to terms with the work of James Prescott Joule, Lord Kelvin started to speculate that there was an inevitable loss of useful heat in all processes. The idea was framed even more dramatically by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1854, giving birth to the spectre of the heat death of the universe.

= = 熵和第二定律 = = 尽管萨迪 · 卡诺从事热量理论的研究，但他在1824年提出，在任何实际过程中，一些可用于产生有用工作的热量都会丢失。1851年3月，当努力与詹姆斯·普雷斯科特·焦耳的工作达成妥协时，开尔文勋爵开始推测在所有过程中有用热量的损失是不可避免的。1854年，赫尔曼·冯·亥姆霍兹更加戏剧性地提出了这个观点，催生了宇宙热死亡的幽灵。

In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine started to make use in calculation of what he called his thermodynamic function. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of entropy formulated by Rudolf Clausius in 1865. Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics the same year.

In 1854, William John Macquorn Rankine started to make use in calculation of what he called his thermodynamic function. This has subsequently been shown to be identical to the concept of entropy formulated by Rudolf Clausius in 1865. Clausius used the concept to develop his classic statement of the second law of thermodynamics the same year.

1854年，威廉·约翰·麦夸恩·兰金开始计算他所谓的热力学函数。这随后被证明与鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯在1865年提出的熵概念是一致的。同年，克劳修斯利用这个概念发展了他对热力学第二定律的经典论述。

Heat transfer

The phenomenon of heat conduction is immediately grasped in everyday life. In 1701, Sir Isaac Newton published his law of cooling. However, in the 17th century, it came to be believed that all materials had an identical conductivity and that differences in sensation arose from their different heat capacities.

热传导现象在日常生活中随处可见。1701年，艾萨克·牛顿发表了他的冷却定律。然而，在17世纪，人们开始相信所有的材料都具有相同的导电性，感觉上的差异源于它们不同的热容。

Suggestions that this might not be the case came from the new science of electricity in which it was easily apparent that some materials were good electrical conductors while others were effective insulators. Jan Ingen-Housz in 1785-9 made some of the earliest measurements, as did Benjamin Thompson during the same period.

有人认为事实可能并非如此，这种观点来自于电学的新科学，在这门科学中，很容易看出一些材料是良好的电导体，而另一些材料则是有效的绝缘体。1785年到1789年间，Jan Ingen-Housz 进行了一些最早的测量，同时期的本杰明·汤普森，伦福德伯爵也进行了测量。

The fact that warm air rises and the importance of the phenomenon to meteorology was first realised by Edmund Halley in 1686. Sir John Leslie observed that the cooling effect of a stream of air increased with its speed, in 1804.

1686年，埃德蒙 · 哈雷首次意识到暖空气上升的事实以及这一现象对气象学的重要性。约翰 · 莱斯利爵士在1804年观察到气流的冷却效果随其速度增加。

Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguished heat transfer by thermal radiation (radiant heat) from that by convection and conduction in 1777. In 1791, Pierre Prévost showed that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are. In 1804, Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. Though it had become to be suspected even from Scheele's work, in 1831 Macedonio Melloni demonstrated that black-body radiation could be reflected, refracted and polarised in the same way as light.

在1777年，卡尔·威廉·舍勒区分了热辐射(辐射热)与对流和传导的热传递。1791年，皮埃尔 · 普雷沃斯特证明了所有的物体都会散发热量，不管它们是热的还是冷的。在1804年，Leslie 观察到一个磨砂的黑色表面比一个抛光的表面能更有效地辐射热量，这暗示了黑体辐射的重要性。尽管从 schele 的工作中已经可以猜到这一点，但在1831年，Macedonio Melloni 证明了黑体辐射可以像光一样被反射、折射和极化。

James Clerk Maxwell's 1862 insight that both light and radiant heat were forms of electromagnetic wave led to the start of the quantitative analysis of thermal radiation. In 1879, Jožef Stefan observed that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and stated the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The law was derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1884.

詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦在1862年发现光和辐射热都是电磁波的形式，从而开始了对热辐射的定量分析。1879年，jo ef Stefan 观察到来自黑体的总辐射通量与其温度的四次方成正比，并提出了 Stefan-Boltzmann 定律。1884年，路德维希·玻尔兹曼从理论上导出了这个定律。

Absolute zero

In 1702 Guillaume Amontons introduced the concept of absolute zero based on observations of gases. In 1810, Sir John Leslie froze water to ice artificially. The idea of absolute zero was generalised in 1848 by Lord Kelvin. In 1906, Walther Nernst stated the third law of thermodynamics.

= = 绝对零度 = = 1702年，吉劳米·阿芒顿根据对气体的观察，提出了绝对零度的概念。1810年，约翰 · 莱斯利爵士将水人工冻结成冰。绝对零度的概念在1848年被开尔文勋爵推广。1906年，Walther Nernst 发表了《热力学第三定律。

Quantum thermodynamics

In 1900 Max Planck found an accurate formula for the spectrum of black-body radiation. Fitting new data required the introduction of a new constant, known as Planck's constant, the fundamental constant of modern physics. Looking at the radiation as coming from a cavity oscillator in thermal equilibrium, the formula suggested that energy in a cavity occurs only in multiples of frequency times the constant. That is, it is quantized. This avoided a divergence to which the theory would lead without the quantization.

= = 量子热力学 = = 1900年，马克斯 · 普朗克发现了黑体辐射光谱的精确公式。为了得到新的数据，需要引入一个新的常数，即普朗克常数，这是现代物理学的基本常数。将辐射看作来自热平衡的谐振子，这个公式表明，一个谐振子的能量只是频率乘以常数的倍数。也就是说，它是量子化的。这避免了在没有量子化的情况下理论会导致的发散。

References

↑ J.Gwyn Griffiths (1955). "The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 75: 21–23. doi:10.2307/629164. JSTOR 629164.
↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam. ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79. https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada.
↑ Laider, Keith J. (1993). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-855919-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=01LRlPbH80cC&printsec=frontcover.
↑ New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [1]
↑ Thomson, W. (1854). "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat Part V. Thermo-electric Currents". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 21 (part I): 123. doi:10.1017/s0080456800032014. reprinted in Thomson, William (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232. https://archive.org/stream/mathematicaland01kelvgoog#page/n260/mode/2up. Hence Thermo-dynamics falls naturally into two Divisions, of which the subjects are respectively, the relation of heat to the forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.
↑ Laidler, Keith (1995). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. p. 110. https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicalc0000laid.
↑ Howard, Irmgard (2002). "H Is for Enthalpy, Thanks to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Alfred W. Porter". Journal of Chemical Education. 79 (6): 697. Bibcode:2002JChEd..79..697H. doi:10.1021/ed079p697.

= 进一步阅读 =

External links

模板:Commons category

History of Thermodynamics – University of Waterloo
Thermodynamic History Notes – WolframScience.com
Brief History of Thermodynamics – Berkeley [PDF]

模板:History of physics

History of Thermodynamics – University of Waterloo
Thermodynamic History Notes – WolframScience.com
Brief History of Thermodynamics – Berkeley [PDF]

= = 外部链接 =

热力学史-滑铁卢大学
热力学历史笔记- wolframscience.com
简要热力学史-伯克利[ PDF ]

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:History of thermodynamics. Its edit history can be viewed at 热力学发展史/edithistory

[Griffith-1] J.Gwyn Griffiths (1955). "The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus)". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 75: 21–23. doi:10.2307/629164. JSTOR 629164.

[2] Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam. ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79. https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada.

[Laider-3] Laider, Keith J. (1993). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-855919-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=01LRlPbH80cC&printsec=frontcover.

[4] New Experiments physico-mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects (1660). [1]

[kelvin1854-5] Thomson, W. (1854). "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat Part V. Thermo-electric Currents". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 21 (part I): 123. doi:10.1017/s0080456800032014. reprinted in Thomson, William (1882). Mathematical and Physical Papers. 1. London, Cambridge: C.J. Clay, M.A. & Son, Cambridge University Press. p. 232. https://archive.org/stream/mathematicaland01kelvgoog#page/n260/mode/2up. Hence Thermo-dynamics falls naturally into two Divisions, of which the subjects are respectively, the relation of heat to the forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency.

[6] Laidler, Keith (1995). The World of Physical Chemistry. Oxford University Press. p. 110. https://archive.org/details/worldofphysicalc0000laid.

[7] Howard, Irmgard (2002). "H Is for Enthalpy, Thanks to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Alfred W. Porter". Journal of Chemical Education. 79 (6): 697. Bibcode:2002JChEd..79..697H. doi:10.1021/ed079p697.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

热力学发展史

目录