社会团体

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"Group structure" redirects here. For group structures in business, see Corporate group.

"Social circle" redirects here. For the city in Georgia, see Social Circle, Georgia.

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Individuals in groups are connected to each other by social relationships.

In the social sciences, a social group can be defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. The system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group or between social groups is known as group dynamics.

thumb|Individuals in groups are connected to each other by social relationships. In the social sciences, a social group can be defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.Reicher, S. D. (1982). "The determination of collective behaviour." Pp. 41–83 in H. Tajfel (ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. The system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group or between social groups is known as group dynamics.

群体中的个体通过社会关系相互联系。在社会科学中，一个社会群体可以被定义为两个或两个以上的人，他们相互影响，共享相似的特征，并且集体有一种统一的意识。Reicher，S.D. (1982).“集体行为的决定”Pp.41-83在 H. Tajfel (ed。社会认同与群际关系。剑桥: 剑桥大学出版社。无论如何，社会群体的规模和种类是无数的。例如，一个社会可以被视为一个大的社会群体。发生在一个社会群体内部或社会群体之间的行为系统和心理过程被称为群体动力学。

= 定义 =

Social cohesion approach

A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. Kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some researchers consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction. According to Dunbar's number, on average, people cannot maintain stable social relationships with more than 150 individuals.模板:Sfn

A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. Kinship ties being a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. In a similar vein, some researchers consider the defining characteristic of a group as social interaction.Hare, A. P. (1962). Handbook of small group research. New York: Macmillan Publishers. According to Dunbar's number, on average, people cannot maintain stable social relationships with more than 150 individuals.

社会凝聚力方法一个社会群体表现出某种程度的社会凝聚力，它不仅仅是一个简单的集合或个体的集合，例如在公共汽车站等候的人，或者排队等候的人。群体成员共有的特征可能包括兴趣、价值观、表征、种族或社会背景以及亲属关系。亲属关系是一种基于共同祖先、婚姻或收养的社会纽带。同样，一些研究者认为群体的定义特征是社会互动。小组研究手册。麦克米伦出版公司。根据邓巴的数据，平均而言，人们无法与超过150个人保持稳定的社会关系。

Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif proposed to define a social unit as a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:

Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif proposed to define a social unit as a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:Sherif, Muzafer, and Carolyn W. Sherif, An Outline of Social Psychology (rev. ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 143–80.

社会心理学家 Muzafer Sherif 提出将社会单位定义为许多个体之间的相互作用: Sherif，Muzafer，和 Carolyn W。 Sherif，《社会心理学大纲》(Rev。艾德)。哈珀与罗出版公司。你好。143–80.

1. Common motives and goals
2. An accepted division of labor, i.e. roles
3. Established status (social rank, dominance) relationships
4. Accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group
5. Development of accepted sanctions (praise and punishment) if and when norms were respected or violated

1. Common motives and goals
2. An accepted division of labor, i.e. roles
3. Established status (social rank, dominance) relationships
4. Accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group
5. Development of accepted sanctions (praise and punishment) if and when norms were respected or violated

共同的动机和目标。角色 # 确立的地位(社会等级，支配地位)关系 # 与群体相关事项的公认规范和价值观 # 当规范受到尊重或违反时，公认制裁(表扬和惩罚)的发展

This definition is long and complex, but it is also precise. It succeeds in providing the researcher with the tools required to answer three important questions:

This definition is long and complex, but it is also precise. It succeeds in providing the researcher with the tools required to answer three important questions:

这个定义冗长而复杂，但它也是精确的。它成功地为研究人员提供了回答三个重要问题所需的工具:

1. "How is a group formed?"
2. "How does a group function?"
3. "How does one describe those social interactions that occur on the way to forming a group?"

1. "How is a group formed?"
2. "How does a group function?"
3. "How does one describe those social interactions that occur on the way to forming a group?"

1. “群体是如何形成的?”# “群体如何运作?”# “如何描述在组建团队的过程中发生的社会互动?”

Significance of that definition

The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations. Much less attention has been paid to the more ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif.

The attention of those who use, participate in, or study groups has focused on functioning groups, on larger organizations, or on the decisions made in these organizations.Simon, Herbert A. 1976. Administrative Behavior (3rd ed.). New York. Free Press. pp. 123–53. Much less attention has been paid to the more ubiquitous and universal social behaviors that do not clearly demonstrate one or more of the five necessary elements described by Sherif.

那些使用、参与或学习小组的人的注意力集中在功能性小组、大型组织或这些组织所做的决定上。西蒙，赫伯特 A。1976.行政行为(第三版)。纽约。新闻自由。你好。123–53.人们很少关注那些无处不在、普遍存在的社会行为，它们没有清楚地表明 Sherif 所描述的五个必要因素中的一个或多个。

Some of the earliest efforts to understand these social units have been the extensive descriptions of urban street gangs in the 1920s and 1930s, continuing through the 1950s, which understood them to be largely reactions to the established authority. The primary goal of gang members was to defend gang territory, and to define and maintain the dominance structure within the gang. There remains in the popular media and urban law enforcement agencies an avid interest in gangs, reflected in daily headlines which emphasize the criminal aspects of gang behavior. However, these studies and the continued interest have not improved the capacity to influence gang behavior or to reduce gang related violence.

Some of the earliest efforts to understand these social units have been the extensive descriptions of urban street gangs in the 1920s and 1930s, continuing through the 1950s, which understood them to be largely reactions to the established authority.Sherif, op. cit. p. 149. The primary goal of gang members was to defend gang territory, and to define and maintain the dominance structure within the gang. There remains in the popular media and urban law enforcement agencies an avid interest in gangs, reflected in daily headlines which emphasize the criminal aspects of gang behavior. However, these studies and the continued interest have not improved the capacity to influence gang behavior or to reduce gang related violence.

为了理解这些社会单元，最早的一些努力是对1920年代和1930年代城市街头帮派的广泛描述，这种描述一直持续到1950年代，这些人认为他们主要是对现有权威的反应。长官，行动。Cit.P. 149.帮派成员的首要目标是保卫帮派的领土，并确定和维护帮派内部的统治结构。在大众媒体和城市执法机构中，仍然存在着对帮派的狂热兴趣，反映在强调帮派行为的犯罪方面的日常新闻标题中。然而，这些研究和持续的兴趣并没有提高影响帮派行为或减少帮派暴力的能力。

The relevant literature on animal social behaviors, such as work on territory and dominance, has been available since the 1950s. Also, they have been largely neglected by policy makers, sociologists and anthropologists. Indeed, vast literature on organization, property, law enforcement, ownership, religion, warfare, values, conflict resolution, authority, rights, and families have grown and evolved without any reference to any analogous social behaviors in animals. This disconnect may be the result of the belief that social behavior in humankind is radically different from the social behavior in animals because of the human capacity for language use and rationality. Of course, while this is true, it is equally likely that the study of the social (group) behaviors of other animals might shed light on the evolutionary roots of social behavior in people.

The relevant literature on animal social behaviors, such as work on territory and dominance, has been available since the 1950s. Also, they have been largely neglected by policy makers, sociologists and anthropologists. Indeed, vast literature on organization, property, law enforcement, ownership, religion, warfare, values, conflict resolution, authority, rights, and families have grown and evolved without any reference to any analogous social behaviors in animals. This disconnect may be the result of the belief that social behavior in humankind is radically different from the social behavior in animals because of the human capacity for language use and rationality. Of course, while this is true, it is equally likely that the study of the social (group) behaviors of other animals might shed light on the evolutionary roots of social behavior in people.

关于动物社会行为的相关文献，例如关于领地和支配地位的研究，自20世纪50年代以来就有了。此外，它们在很大程度上被政策制定者、社会学家和人类学家所忽视。事实上，关于组织、财产、执法、所有权、宗教、战争、价值观、冲突解决、权威、权利和家庭的大量文献已经成长和发展，但没有提到任何类似的动物社会行为。这种脱节可能是由于相信人类的社会行为与动物的社会行为截然不同，因为人类有语言使用和理性的能力。当然，虽然这是真的，但同样有可能的是，对其他动物的社会(群体)行为的研究可能会阐明人类社会行为的进化根源。

Territorial and dominance behaviors in humans are so universal and commonplace that they are simply taken for granted (though sometimes admired, as in home ownership, or deplored, as in violence). But these social behaviors and interactions between human individuals play a special role in the study of groups: they are necessarily prior to the formation of groups. The psychological internalization of territorial and dominance experiences in conscious and unconscious memory are established through the formation of social identity, personal identity, body concept, or self concept. An adequately functioning individual identity is necessary before an individual can function in a division of labor (role), and hence, within a cohesive group. Coming to understand territorial and dominance behaviors may thus help to clarify the development, functioning, and productivity of groups.

Territorial and dominance behaviors in humans are so universal and commonplace that they are simply taken for granted (though sometimes admired, as in home ownership, or deplored, as in violence). But these social behaviors and interactions between human individuals play a special role in the study of groups: they are necessarily prior to the formation of groups. The psychological internalization of territorial and dominance experiences in conscious and unconscious memory are established through the formation of social identity, personal identity, body concept, or self concept. An adequately functioning individual identity is necessary before an individual can function in a division of labor (role), and hence, within a cohesive group. Coming to understand territorial and dominance behaviors may thus help to clarify the development, functioning, and productivity of groups.

人类的领土和统治行为是如此普遍和普遍，以至于它们被认为是理所当然的(尽管有时受到赞赏，比如拥有房屋，或者受到谴责，比如暴力)。但是这些社会行为和人与人之间的相互作用在群体研究中起着特殊的作用: 它们必然先于群体的形成。有意识记忆和无意识记忆中领地经验和支配经验的心理内化是通过社会认同、个人认同、身体概念或自我概念的形成而建立起来的。在个体能够在分工(角色)中发挥作用之前，一个充分发挥作用的个体身份是必要的，因此，在一个有凝聚力的群体中也是如此。因此，了解领土和统治行为可能有助于澄清群体的发展、功能和生产力。

Social identification approach

Explicitly contrasted against a social cohesion based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights made in social identity theory. Here, rather than defining a social group based on expressions of cohesive social relationships between individuals, the social identity model assumes that "psychological group membership has primarily a perceptual or cognitive basis." It posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for individuals to act as group members is "awareness of a common category membership" and that a social group can be "usefully conceptualized as a number of individuals who have internalized the same social category membership as a component of their self concept." Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion approach expects group members to ask "who am I attracted to?", the social identity perspective expects group members to simply ask "who am I?"

Explicitly contrasted against a social cohesion based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights made in social identity theory.Tajfel, H., and J. C. Turner (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W.G. Austin & S. Worchel (eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations. pp. 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Here, rather than defining a social group based on expressions of cohesive social relationships between individuals, the social identity model assumes that "psychological group membership has primarily a perceptual or cognitive basis." It posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for individuals to act as group members is "awareness of a common category membership" and that a social group can be "usefully conceptualized as a number of individuals who have internalized the same social category membership as a component of their self concept." Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion approach expects group members to ask "who am I attracted to?", the social identity perspective expects group members to simply ask "who am I?"

社会认同方法与基于社会凝聚力的社会群体定义形成鲜明对比的是社会认同观点，该观点借鉴了社会认同理论的见解。特纳(1979)。群际冲突的整合理论。在 W.G. 。奥斯汀 & S。) ，群体间关系的社会心理学。你好。33–47.蒙特雷: 布鲁克斯/科尔在这里，社会认同模型不是基于个人之间有凝聚力的社会关系的表达来定义一个社会群体，而是假设“心理群体成员关系主要有一个感知或认知的基础。”它假定个人作为群体成员行动的必要和充分条件是“意识到一个共同的类别成员”，并且一个社会群体可以“有效地概念化为一些个体，他们已经内化了同一个社会类别成员作为他们自我概念的一个组成部分。”换句话说，社会凝聚力方法期望团队成员问“我被谁吸引?”？社会认同观点期望团队成员只是简单地问“我是谁?”

Empirical support for the social identity perspective on groups was initially drawn from work using the minimal group paradigm. For example, it has been shown that the mere act of allocating individuals to explicitly random categories is sufficient to lead individuals to act in an ingroup favouring fashion (even where no individual self-interest is possible). Also problematic for the social cohesion account is recent research showing that seemingly meaningless categorization can be an antecedent of perceptions of interdependence with fellow category members.

Empirical support for the social identity perspective on groups was initially drawn from work using the minimal group paradigm. For example, it has been shown that the mere act of allocating individuals to explicitly random categories is sufficient to lead individuals to act in an ingroup favouring fashion (even where no individual self-interest is possible).Tajfel, H., Billig, M., Bundy, R.P. & Flament, C. (1971). "Social categorization and intergroup behaviour". European Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 149–78, Also problematic for the social cohesion account is recent research showing that seemingly meaningless categorization can be an antecedent of perceptions of interdependence with fellow category members.

对群体社会认同观点的经验性支持最初来自于使用最小群体范式的工作。例如，已经证明，仅仅将个人分配到明确随机的类别就足以导致个人以有利于群体的方式行事(即使在没有个人利益可能的情况下)。Tajfel，h，Billig，m，Bundy，rp.& 弗拉芒 C (1971)。“社会分类和群体间行为”。欧洲社会心理学杂志，2,149-78，最近的研究表明，看似毫无意义的分类可能是与其他类别成员相互依存感知的先决条件，这也是社会凝聚力的问题所在。

While the roots of this approach to social groups had its foundations in social identity theory, more concerted exploration of these ideas occurred later in the form of self-categorization theory. Whereas social identity theory was directed initially at the explanation of intergroup conflict in the absence of any conflict of interests, self-categorization theory was developed to explain how individuals come to perceive themselves as members of a group in the first place, and how this self-grouping process underlies and determines all problems subsequent aspects of group behaviour.

While the roots of this approach to social groups had its foundations in social identity theory, more concerted exploration of these ideas occurred later in the form of self-categorization theory. Whereas social identity theory was directed initially at the explanation of intergroup conflict in the absence of any conflict of interests, self-categorization theory was developed to explain how individuals come to perceive themselves as members of a group in the first place, and how this self-grouping process underlies and determines all problems subsequent aspects of group behaviour.Turner, J. C. (1987) Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 42–67.

虽然这种社会群体方法的根源在于社会同一性理论，但后来以自我范畴理论的形式对这些观点进行了更加协调一致的探索。社会认同理论最初的目的是在没有任何利益冲突的情况下解释群体间的冲突，而自我分类理论的发展首先是为了解释个体如何开始认识到自己是群体的成员，以及这种自我分组过程如何成为群体行为后续所有问题的基础并决定这些问题。重新发现社会群体: 一种自我范畴化理论。布莱克威尔。你好。42–67.

Defining characteristics

In his text, Group Dynamics, Forsyth (2010) discuses several common characteristics of groups that can help to define them.

In his text, Group Dynamics, Forsyth (2010) discuses several common characteristics of groups that can help to define them.

在他的文章中，团队动力学，Forsyth (2010)讨论了一些可以帮助定义他们的团队的共同特征。

1) Interaction

Main article: Social interaction

This group component varies greatly, including verbal or non-verbal communication, social loafing, networking, forming bonds, etc. Research by Bales (cite, 1950, 1999) determine that there are two main types of interactions; relationship interactions and task interactions.

1. Relationship interactions: “actions performed by group members that relate to or influence the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group, including both positive actions (social support, consideration) and negative actions (criticism, conflict).”
2. Task interactions: “actions performed by group members that pertain to the group’s projects, tasks, and goals.” This involve members organizing themselves and utilizing their skills and resources to achieve something.

This group component varies greatly, including verbal or non-verbal communication, social loafing, networking, forming bonds, etc. Research by Bales (cite, 1950, 1999) determine that there are two main types of interactions; relationship interactions and task interactions.

1. Relationship interactions: “actions performed by group members that relate to or influence the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group, including both positive actions (social support, consideration) and negative actions (criticism, conflict).”
2. Task interactions: “actions performed by group members that pertain to the group’s projects, tasks, and goals.” This involve members organizing themselves and utilizing their skills and resources to achieve something.

这个群体的组成部分变化很大，包括语言或非语言交流，社会游手好闲，网络，形成联系，等等。Bales 的研究(引用，1950,1999)确定了两种主要的互动类型: 关系互动和任务互动。关系互动: “小组成员所做的与小组内的情感和人际关系有关或影响的行为，包括积极的行为(社会支持，考虑)和消极的行为(批评，冲突)。”任务交互: “小组成员执行的与小组的项目、任务和目标相关的行为。”这包括成员组织自己，利用他们的技能和资源来实现某些目标。

2) Goals

Most groups have a reason for their existence, be it increasing the education and knowledge, receiving emotional support, or experiencing spirituality or religion. Groups can facilitate the achievement of these goals. The circumplex model of group tasks by Joseph McGrath organizes group related tasks and goals. Groups may focus on several of these goals, or one area at a time. The model divides group goals into four main types, which are further sub-categorized

1. Generating: coming up with ideas and plans to reach goals
   • Planning Tasks
   • Creativity Tasks
2. Choosing: Selecting a solution.
   • Intellective Tasks
   • Decision-making Tasks
3. Negotiating: Arranging a solution to a problem.
   • Cognitive Conflict Tasks
   • Mixed Motive Task
4. Executing: Act of carrying out a task.
   • Contests/Battles/Competitive Tasks
   • Performance/Psychomotor Tasks

Most groups have a reason for their existence, be it increasing the education and knowledge, receiving emotional support, or experiencing spirituality or religion. Groups can facilitate the achievement of these goals. The circumplex model of group tasks by Joseph McGrath organizes group related tasks and goals. Groups may focus on several of these goals, or one area at a time. The model divides group goals into four main types, which are further sub-categorized

1. Generating: coming up with ideas and plans to reach goals
   • Planning Tasks
   • Creativity Tasks
2. Choosing: Selecting a solution.
   • Intellective Tasks
   • Decision-making Tasks
3. Negotiating: Arranging a solution to a problem.
   • Cognitive Conflict Tasks
   • Mixed Motive Task
4. Executing: Act of carrying out a task.
   • Contests/Battles/Competitive Tasks
   • Performance/Psychomotor Tasks

大多数群体的存在都有其存在的理由，不管是增加教育和知识，接受情感支持，还是体验精神或宗教。团体可以促进这些目标的实现。麦格拉斯的群体任务环形模型组织了群体相关的任务和目标。团队可以关注这些目标中的几个，或者一次只关注一个领域。该模型将团队目标划分为四种主要类型，进一步细分为 # 生成: 提出想法和计划以实现目标 # 计划任务 # 创造性任务 # 选择: 选择一个解决方案。智力任务决策任务谈判: 为问题安排解决方案。认知冲突任务混合动机任务执行: 执行任务的行为。比赛/战斗/竞争任务表现/精神运动任务

3) Interdependence in relation

“The state of being dependent, to some degree, on other people, as when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in whole or part by others." Some groups are more interdependent than others. For example, a sports team would have a relatively high level of interdependence as compared to a group of people watching a movie at the movie theater. Also, interdependence may be mutual (flowing back and forth between members) or more linear/unilateral. For example, some group members may be more dependent on their boss than the boss is on each of the individuals.

“The state of being dependent, to some degree, on other people, as when one’s outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are determined in whole or part by others." Some groups are more interdependent than others. For example, a sports team would have a relatively high level of interdependence as compared to a group of people watching a movie at the movie theater. Also, interdependence may be mutual (flowing back and forth between members) or more linear/unilateral. For example, some group members may be more dependent on their boss than the boss is on each of the individuals.

相互依赖关系“在某种程度上依赖他人的状态，如一个人的结果、行为、思想、感觉和经历全部或部分由他人决定。”有些群体比其他群体更加相互依赖。例如，与一群在电影院看电影的人相比，一个运动队的相互依赖程度相对较高。此外，相互依赖可能是相互的(在成员之间来回流动)或更多的线性/单边。例如，一些团队成员可能更依赖于他们的老板，而不是老板对每个人的依赖。

4) Structure

Group structure involves the emergence or regularities, norms, roles and relations that form within a group over time. Roles involve the expected performance and conduct of people within the group depending on their status or position within the group. Norms are the ideas adopted by the group pertaining to acceptable and unacceptable conduct by members. Group structure is a very important part of a group. If people fail to meet their expectations within to groups, and fulfil their roles, they may not accept the group, or be accepted by other group members.

Group structure involves the emergence or regularities, norms, roles and relations that form within a group over time. Roles involve the expected performance and conduct of people within the group depending on their status or position within the group. Norms are the ideas adopted by the group pertaining to acceptable and unacceptable conduct by members. Group structure is a very important part of a group. If people fail to meet their expectations within to groups, and fulfil their roles, they may not accept the group, or be accepted by other group members.

群体结构包括随着时间的推移在群体内形成的出现或规律、规范、角色和关系。角色包括人们在团队中的预期表现和行为，这取决于他们在团队中的地位或地位。规范是小组通过的关于成员可接受和不可接受的行为的想法。群体结构是群体的重要组成部分。如果人们不能满足他们对小组的期望，不能履行他们的角色，他们可能不会接受这个小组，或者不会被其他小组成员接受。

5) Unity

When viewed holistically, a group is greater than the sum of its individual parts. When people speak of groups, they speak of the group as a whole, or an entity, rather than speaking of it in terms of individuals. For example, it would be said that “The band played beautifully.” Several factors play a part in this image of unity, including group cohesiveness, and entitativity (appearance of cohesion by outsiders).

When viewed holistically, a group is greater than the sum of its individual parts. When people speak of groups, they speak of the group as a whole, or an entity, rather than speaking of it in terms of individuals. For example, it would be said that “The band played beautifully.” Several factors play a part in this image of unity, including group cohesiveness, and entitativity (appearance of cohesion by outsiders).

从整体上看，一个群体大于其各个部分的总和。当人们谈论群体时，他们谈论的是整个群体，而不是个体。例如，人们会说“乐队演奏得很好”有几个因素在这种团结的形象中起作用，包括群体凝聚力和实体性(外部凝聚力的表现)。

Types

Main article: Types of social groups

There are four main types of groups: 1) primary groups, 2) social groups, 3) collectives, and 4) categories.

There are four main types of groups: 1) primary groups, 2) social groups, 3) collectives, and 4) categories.Forsyth, Donelson R. 2009. Group Dynamics (5th ed.). New York: Wadsworth. .

有四种主要的群体类型: 1)主要群体，2)社会群体，3)集体，和4)类别。Forsyth，Donelson R. 2009.群体动力学(第五版)。纽约: 沃兹沃斯。.

1) Primary groups

Primary groups are small, long-term groups characterized by high amounts of cohesiveness, member identification, face-to-face interaction, and solidarity. Such groups may act as the principal source of socialization for individuals as primary groups may shape an individual's attitudes, values, and social orientation.

Primary groups are small, long-term groups characterized by high amounts of cohesiveness, member identification, face-to-face interaction, and solidarity. Such groups may act as the principal source of socialization for individuals as primary groups may shape an individual's attitudes, values, and social orientation.

小组小组是小组，长期的小组拥有属性高度的凝聚力，成员认同感，面对面的互动和团结。这些群体可以作为个人社会化的主要来源，因为主要群体可以塑造个人的态度、价值观和社会取向。

Three sub-groups of primary groups are:

Three sub-groups of primary groups are:Litwak, Eugene, and Ivan Szelenyi. 1969. "Primary Group Structures and Their Functions: Kin, Neighbors, and Friends." American Sociological Review 34(4):465–81. . – via ResearchGate.

三个小组的主要群体是: 利特瓦克，尤金和伊万 Szelenyi。1969.主要群体结构及其功能: 亲属、邻居和朋友美国社会学评论34(4) : 465-81。.通过研究门户。

1. kin (relatives)
2. close friends
3. neighbours.

1. kin (relatives)
2. close friends
3. neighbours.

亲戚，密友，邻居。

2) Social groups

Social groups are also small groups but are of moderate duration. These groups are often formed due to a common goal. In this type of group, it is possible for outgroup members (i.e., social categories of which one is not a member) to become ingroup members (i.e., social categories of which one is a member) with reasonable ease. Social groups, such as study groups or coworkers, interact moderately over a prolonged period of time.

Social groups are also small groups but are of moderate duration. These groups are often formed due to a common goal. In this type of group, it is possible for outgroup members (i.e., social categories of which one is not a member) to become ingroup members (i.e., social categories of which one is a member) with reasonable ease. Social groups, such as study groups or coworkers, interact moderately over a prolonged period of time.

社会团体社会团体也是小团体，但是持续时间适中。这些团体往往是由于一个共同的目标而形成的。在这种类型的群体中，外部群体成员(即，某人不是其成员的社会类别)可以合理轻松地成为内部群体成员(即，某人是其成员的社会类别)。社会团体，如学习小组或同事，在一段较长的时间内适度互动。

3) Collectives

In contrast, spontaneous collectives, such as bystanders or audiences of various sizes, exist only for a very brief period of time and it is very easy to become an ingroup member from an outgroup member and vice versa. Collectives may display similar actions and outlooks.

In contrast, spontaneous collectives, such as bystanders or audiences of various sizes, exist only for a very brief period of time and it is very easy to become an ingroup member from an outgroup member and vice versa. Collectives may display similar actions and outlooks.

相比之下，自发的集体，如旁观者或不同规模的观众，只存在很短的时间，很容易从外群体成员变成内群体成员，反之亦然。集体可能表现出类似的行动和观点。

4) Categories

Categories consist of individuals that are similar to one another in a certain way, and members of this group can be permanent ingroup members or temporary ingroup members. Examples of categories are individuals with the same ethnicity, gender, religion, or nationality. This group is generally the largest type of group.

Categories consist of individuals that are similar to one another in a certain way, and members of this group can be permanent ingroup members or temporary ingroup members. Examples of categories are individuals with the same ethnicity, gender, religion, or nationality. This group is generally the largest type of group.

类别类别由在某种程度上彼此相似的个体组成，这个群体的成员可以是群体内的永久成员，也可以是群体内的临时成员。类别的例子是具有相同种族、性别、宗教或国籍的个人。这个群体通常是最大的群体类型。

Health

The social groups people are involved with in the workplace directly affect their health. No matter where you work or what the occupation is, feeling a sense of belonging in a peer group is a key to overall success. Part of this is the responsibility of the leader (manager, supervisor, etc.). If the leader helps everyone feel a sense of belonging within the group, it can help boost morale and productivity. According to Dr. Niklas Steffens "Social identification contributes to both psychological and physiological health, but the health benefits are stronger for psychological health". The social relationships people have can be linked to different health conditions. Lower quantity or quality social relationships have been connected to issues such as: development of cardiovascular disease, recurrent myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, autonomic dysregulation, high blood pressure, cancer and delayed cancer recovery, and slower wound healing as well as inflammatory biomarkers and impaired immune function, factors associated with adverse health outcomes and mortality. The social relationship of marriage is the most studied of all, the marital history over the course of one's life can form differing health outcomes such as cardiovascular disease, chronic conditions, mobility limitations, self-rated health, and depressive symptoms. Social connectedness also plays a large part in overcoming certain conditions such as drug, alcohol, or substance abuse. With these types of issues, a person's peer group play a big role in helping them stay sober. Conditions do not need to be life-threatening, one's social group can help deal with work anxiety as well. When people are more socially connected have access to more support. Some of the health issues people have may also stem from their uncertainty about just where they stand among their colleagues. It has been shown that being well socially connected has a significant impact on a person as they age, according to a 10-year study by the MacArthur Foundation, which was published in the book 'Successful Aging' the support, love, and care we feel through our social connections can help to counteract some of the health-related negatives of aging. Older people who were more active in social circles tended to be better off health-wise.

The social groups people are involved with in the workplace directly affect their health. No matter where you work or what the occupation is, feeling a sense of belonging in a peer group is a key to overall success. Part of this is the responsibility of the leader (manager, supervisor, etc.). If the leader helps everyone feel a sense of belonging within the group, it can help boost morale and productivity. According to Dr. Niklas Steffens "Social identification contributes to both psychological and physiological health, but the health benefits are stronger for psychological health". The social relationships people have can be linked to different health conditions. Lower quantity or quality social relationships have been connected to issues such as: development of cardiovascular disease, recurrent myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, autonomic dysregulation, high blood pressure, cancer and delayed cancer recovery, and slower wound healing as well as inflammatory biomarkers and impaired immune function, factors associated with adverse health outcomes and mortality. The social relationship of marriage is the most studied of all, the marital history over the course of one's life can form differing health outcomes such as cardiovascular disease, chronic conditions, mobility limitations, self-rated health, and depressive symptoms. Social connectedness also plays a large part in overcoming certain conditions such as drug, alcohol, or substance abuse. With these types of issues, a person's peer group play a big role in helping them stay sober. Conditions do not need to be life-threatening, one's social group can help deal with work anxiety as well. When people are more socially connected have access to more support. Some of the health issues people have may also stem from their uncertainty about just where they stand among their colleagues. It has been shown that being well socially connected has a significant impact on a person as they age, according to a 10-year study by the MacArthur Foundation, which was published in the book 'Successful Aging' the support, love, and care we feel through our social connections can help to counteract some of the health-related negatives of aging. Older people who were more active in social circles tended to be better off health-wise.

人们在工作场所所参与的社会群体直接影响他们的健康。无论你在哪里工作或从事什么职业，在同龄人群体中感到一种归属感是整体成功的关键。这部分是领导者(经理、主管等)的责任。如果领导者能够帮助每个人在团队中找到归属感，就能够提高士气和生产力。根据 Niklas Steffens 博士的说法，“社会认同有助于心理和生理健康，但对心理健康的益处更大。”。人们的社会关系可以与不同的健康状况联系起来。较低数量或质量的社会关系与以下问题有关: 心血管疾病的发展、复发性心肌梗死、动脉粥样硬化、自主神经失调、高血压、癌症和癌症恢复延迟、伤口愈合缓慢以及炎症生物标志物和免疫功能受损、与不良健康结果和死亡率相关的因素。婚姻的社会关系是所有研究中最多的，一个人一生中的婚姻历史可以形成不同的健康结果，如心血管疾病，慢性病，行动受限，自我健康评估和抑郁症状。社会联系在克服某些条件如毒品、酒精或药物滥用方面也发挥了很大作用。对于这些类型的问题，一个人的同龄人群体在帮助他们保持清醒方面扮演着重要的角色。情况不需要危及生命，一个人的社会团体也可以帮助处理工作焦虑。当人们的社会联系更加紧密时，就能获得更多的支持。人们的一些健康问题也可能源于他们对自己在同事中的地位的不确定性。麦克阿瑟基金会(MacArthur Foundation)的一项为期10年的研究表明，良好的社会关系对一个人的衰老有着重要的影响。这项研究发表在《成功的衰老》(Success Aging)一书中。我们通过社会关系感受到的支持、爱和关怀，有助于抵消衰老带来的一些与健康相关的负面影响。老年人在社交圈中更加活跃，在健康方面往往更好。

Group membership and recruitment

Social groups tend to form based on certain principles of attraction, that draw individuals to affiliate with each other, eventually forming a group.

Social groups tend to form based on certain principles of attraction, that draw individuals to affiliate with each other, eventually forming a group.

团体成员和招募社会团体倾向于建立在某些吸引原则的基础上，吸引个人相互联系，最终形成一个团体。

• The Proximity Principle – the tendency for individuals to develop relationships and form groups with those they are (often physically) close to. This is often referred to as ‘familiarity breeds liking’, or that we prefer things/people that we are familiar with
• The Similarity Principle – the tendency for individuals to affiliate with or prefer individuals who share their attitudes, values, demographic characteristics, etc.
• The Complementarity Principle – the tendency for individuals to like other individuals who are dissimilar from themselves, but in a complementary manner. E.g. leaders will attract those who like being led, and those who like being led will attract leaders
• The Reciprocity Principle – the tendency for liking to be mutual. For example, if A likes B, B is inclined to like A. Conversely, if A dislikes B, B will probably not like A (negative reciprocity)
• The Elaboration Principle – the tendency for groups to complexify over time by adding new members through their relationships with existing group members. In more formal or structured groups, prospective members may need a reference from a current group member before they can join.

• The Proximity Principle – the tendency for individuals to develop relationships and form groups with those they are (often physically) close to. This is often referred to as ‘familiarity breeds liking’, or that we prefer things/people that we are familiar with
• The Similarity Principle – the tendency for individuals to affiliate with or prefer individuals who share their attitudes, values, demographic characteristics, etc.
• The Complementarity Principle – the tendency for individuals to like other individuals who are dissimilar from themselves, but in a complementary manner. E.g. leaders will attract those who like being led, and those who like being led will attract leaders
• The Reciprocity Principle – the tendency for liking to be mutual. For example, if A likes B, B is inclined to like A. Conversely, if A dislikes B, B will probably not like A (negative reciprocity)
• The Elaboration Principle – the tendency for groups to complexify over time by adding new members through their relationships with existing group members. In more formal or structured groups, prospective members may need a reference from a current group member before they can join.

邻近原则-个人发展关系的倾向，并与那些他们(经常是身体上)亲近的人形成群体。这通常被称为“熟悉带来喜欢”，或者我们更喜欢我们熟悉的事物/人。

• 相似性原则——个体倾向于与那些有着相同态度、价值观、人口统计特征的个体建立联系或者更喜欢他们。
• 互补性原则——个人倾向于喜欢与自己不同但以互补方式相处的其他个人。例如。领导者会吸引那些喜欢被领导的人，而那些喜欢被领导的人会吸引领导者。
• 互惠原则——喜欢相互的倾向。例如，如果 A 喜欢 B，B 倾向于喜欢 A。相反，如果 A 不喜欢 B，B 可能不会喜欢 A (负互惠)
• 精化原则——群体通过与现有群体成员的关系增加新成员的趋势随着时间的推移而变得复杂。在更正式或结构化的团体中，潜在成员可能需要当前团体成员的推荐信才能加入。

Other factors also influence the formation of a group. Extroverts may seek out groups more, as they find larger and more frequent interpersonal interactions stimulating and enjoyable (more than introverts). Similarly, groups may seek out extroverts more than introverts, perhaps because they find they connect with extroverts more readily. Those higher in relationality (attentiveness to their relations with other people) are also likelier to seek out and prize group membership. Relationality has also been associated with extroversion and agreeableness. Similarly, those with a high need for affiliation are more drawn to join groups, spend more time with groups and accept other group members more readily.

Other factors also influence the formation of a group. Extroverts may seek out groups more, as they find larger and more frequent interpersonal interactions stimulating and enjoyable (more than introverts). Similarly, groups may seek out extroverts more than introverts, perhaps because they find they connect with extroverts more readily. Those higher in relationality (attentiveness to their relations with other people) are also likelier to seek out and prize group membership. Relationality has also been associated with extroversion and agreeableness. Similarly, those with a high need for affiliation are more drawn to join groups, spend more time with groups and accept other group members more readily.

其他因素也会影响群体的形成。外向的人可能会更多地寻找群体，因为他们发现更大和更频繁的人际互动刺激和愉快(比内向者)。同样地，群体可能比内向者更喜欢寻找外向者，也许是因为他们发现自己更容易与外向者建立联系。那些关系更好的人(注意他们与其他人的关系)也更可能寻找和奖励团体成员。关系性也与外向性和亲和性有关。同样，那些高度需要从属关系的人更容易加入小组，花更多的时间在小组上，并且更容易接受其他小组成员。

Previous experiences with groups (good and bad) inform people's decisions to join prospective groups. Individuals will compare the rewards of the group (e.g. belonging, emotional support, informational support, instrumental support, spiritual support; see Uchino, 2004 for an overview) against potential costs (e.g. time, emotional energy). Those with negative or 'mixed' experiences with previous groups will likely be more deliberate in their assessment of potential groups to join, and with which groups they choose to join. (For more, see Minimax Principal, as part of Social Exchange Theory)

Previous experiences with groups (good and bad) inform people's decisions to join prospective groups. Individuals will compare the rewards of the group (e.g. belonging, emotional support, informational support, instrumental support, spiritual support; see Uchino, 2004 for an overview) against potential costs (e.g. time, emotional energy). Those with negative or 'mixed' experiences with previous groups will likely be more deliberate in their assessment of potential groups to join, and with which groups they choose to join. (For more, see Minimax Principal, as part of Social Exchange Theory)

以前的团体经验(好的和坏的)告诉人们加入未来团体的决定。个人会比较团体的回报(例如:。归属感，情感支持，信息支持，工具支持，精神支持; 见 Uchino，2004年的概述)与潜在成本(例如。时间、情感能量)。那些与以前的团体有过负面或“混合”经历的人，在评估潜在团体加入时可能会更加慎重，以及他们选择加入哪些团体。(更多信息，请参见社会交换理论的极小极大原则)

Once a group has begun to form, it can increase membership through a few ways. If the group is an open group, where membership boundaries are relatively permeable, group members can enter and leave the group as they see fit (often via at least one of the aforementioned Principles of Attraction). A closed group on the other hand, where membership boundaries are more rigid and closed, often engages in deliberate and/or explicit recruitment and socialization of new members.

Once a group has begun to form, it can increase membership through a few ways. If the group is an open group, where membership boundaries are relatively permeable, group members can enter and leave the group as they see fit (often via at least one of the aforementioned Principles of Attraction). A closed group on the other hand, where membership boundaries are more rigid and closed, often engages in deliberate and/or explicit recruitment and socialization of new members.

一旦一个团体开始形成，它可以通过几种方式增加成员。如果团队是一个开放的团队，其成员边界是相对可渗透的，团队成员可以进入和离开团队，因为他们认为合适(通常通过至少一个前面提到的吸引原则)。另一方面，在成员界限更为严格和封闭的封闭群体中，往往有意和/或明确地招募新成员并使其社会化。

If a group is highly cohesive, it will likely engage in processes that contribute to cohesion levels, especially when recruiting new members, who can add to a group's cohesion, or destabilize it. Classic examples of groups with high cohesion are fraternities, sororities, gangs, and cults, which are all noted for their recruitment process, especially their initiation or hazing. In all groups, formal and informal initiations add to a group's cohesion and strengthens the bond between the individual and group by demonstrating the exclusiveness of group membership as well as the recruit's dedication to the group. Initiations tend to be more formal in more cohesive groups. Initiation is also important for recruitment because it can mitigate any cognitive dissonance in potential group members.

If a group is highly cohesive, it will likely engage in processes that contribute to cohesion levels, especially when recruiting new members, who can add to a group's cohesion, or destabilize it. Classic examples of groups with high cohesion are fraternities, sororities, gangs, and cults, which are all noted for their recruitment process, especially their initiation or hazing. In all groups, formal and informal initiations add to a group's cohesion and strengthens the bond between the individual and group by demonstrating the exclusiveness of group membership as well as the recruit's dedication to the group. Initiations tend to be more formal in more cohesive groups. Initiation is also important for recruitment because it can mitigate any cognitive dissonance in potential group members.

如果一个团队具有高度的凝聚力，它很可能会参与有助于提高凝聚力水平的过程，特别是在招募新成员时，这些新成员可以增加团队的凝聚力，或者破坏团队的稳定。具有高度凝聚力的团体的典型例子是兄弟会、女生联谊会、帮派和邪教，这些团体都因其招募过程而著名，尤其是他们的入会或受辱。在所有的团体中，正式和非正式的入会都会增加团体的凝聚力，并通过展示团体成员的排他性以及新成员对团体的奉献精神来加强个人和团体之间的联系。在更有凝聚力的群体中，启动会更加正式。对于招聘来说，启动也很重要，因为它可以减少潜在团队成员的认知失调。

In some instances, such as cults, recruitment can also be referred to as conversion. Kelman's Theory of Conversion identifies 3 stages of conversion: compliance (individual will comply or accept group's views, but not necessarily agree with them), identification (member begins to mimic group's actions, values, characteristics, etc.) and internalization (group beliefs and demands become congruent with member's personal beliefs, goals and values). This outlines the process of how new members can become deeply connected to the group.

In some instances, such as cults, recruitment can also be referred to as conversion. Kelman's Theory of Conversion identifies 3 stages of conversion: compliance (individual will comply or accept group's views, but not necessarily agree with them), identification (member begins to mimic group's actions, values, characteristics, etc.) and internalization (group beliefs and demands become congruent with member's personal beliefs, goals and values). This outlines the process of how new members can become deeply connected to the group.

在某些情况下，如邪教，招募也可以被称为转换。凯尔曼的转换理论确定了转换的三个阶段: 顺从(个人会顺从或接受团队的观点，但不一定同意他们) ，认同(成员开始模仿团队的行动，价值观，特征等)内化(团体信念和要求与成员的个人信念、目标和价值观一致)。这概述了新成员如何与团队建立深层联系的过程。

Development

If one brings a small collection of strangers together in a restricted space and environment, provides a common goal and maybe a few ground rules, then a highly probable course of events will follow. Interaction between individuals is the basic requirement. At first, individuals will differentially interact in sets of twos or threes while seeking to interact with those with whom they share something in common: i.e., interests, skills, and cultural background. Relationships will develop some stability in these small sets, in that individuals may temporarily change from one set to another, but will return to the same pairs or trios rather consistently and resist change. Particular twosomes and threesomes will stake out their special spots within the overall space.

If one brings a small collection of strangers together in a restricted space and environment, provides a common goal and maybe a few ground rules, then a highly probable course of events will follow. Interaction between individuals is the basic requirement. At first, individuals will differentially interact in sets of twos or threes while seeking to interact with those with whom they share something in common: i.e., interests, skills, and cultural background. Relationships will develop some stability in these small sets, in that individuals may temporarily change from one set to another, but will return to the same pairs or trios rather consistently and resist change. Particular twosomes and threesomes will stake out their special spots within the overall space.

如果一个人把一小群陌生人聚集在一个有限的空间和环境中，提供一个共同的目标，也许还有一些基本的规则，那么一个极有可能发生的事情就会随之而来。个体之间的互动是基本要求。起初，个体会以两三种不同的方式进行互动，同时寻求与那些与他们有共同点的人进行互动: 即兴趣、技能和文化背景。人际关系将在这些小集合中发展出一些稳定性，因为个体可能会暂时从一个集合转换到另一个集合，但会回到相同的对或三重奏，而是始终如一地抵制改变。特别的二人行和三人行将在整个空间中标出他们的特殊位置。

Again depending on the common goal, eventually twosomes and threesomes will integrate into larger sets of six or eight, with corresponding revisions of territory, dominance-ranking, and further differentiation of roles. All of this seldom takes place without some conflict or disagreement: for example, fighting over the distribution of resources, the choices of means and different subgoals, the development of what are appropriate norms, rewards and punishments. Some of these conflicts will be territorial in nature: i.e., jealousy over roles, or locations, or favored relationships. But most will be involved with struggles for status, ranging from mild protests to serious verbal conflicts and even dangerous violence.

Again depending on the common goal, eventually twosomes and threesomes will integrate into larger sets of six or eight, with corresponding revisions of territory, dominance-ranking, and further differentiation of roles. All of this seldom takes place without some conflict or disagreement: for example, fighting over the distribution of resources, the choices of means and different subgoals, the development of what are appropriate norms, rewards and punishments. Some of these conflicts will be territorial in nature: i.e., jealousy over roles, or locations, or favored relationships. But most will be involved with struggles for status, ranging from mild protests to serious verbal conflicts and even dangerous violence.

同样取决于共同的目标，最终二人组和三人组将整合成更大的六人或八人组，并相应地修订领土、优势地位和进一步的角色分化。所有这一切很少发生在没有冲突或分歧的情况下: 例如，争夺资源的分配、手段的选择和不同的次级目标、制定什么是适当的规范、奖励和惩罚。其中一些冲突在本质上是属于地域性的: 例如，对角色、地点或受宠关系的嫉妒。但是大多数人都会卷入争夺地位的斗争，从温和的抗议到严重的口头冲突，甚至是危险的暴力。

By analogy to animal behavior, sociologists may term these behaviors territorial behaviors and dominance behaviors. Depending on the pressure of the common goal and on the various skills of individuals, differentiations of leadership, dominance, or authority will develop. Once these relationships solidify, with their defined roles, norms, and sanctions, a productive group will have been established.

By analogy to animal behavior, sociologists may term these behaviors territorial behaviors and dominance behaviors. Depending on the pressure of the common goal and on the various skills of individuals, differentiations of leadership, dominance, or authority will develop. Once these relationships solidify, with their defined roles, norms, and sanctions, a productive group will have been established.Sherif, op. cit. pp. 181–279Scott, John Paul. Animal Behavior, The University of Chicago Press, 1959, 281pp.Halloway, Ralph L., Primate Aggression, Territoriality, and Xenophobia, Academic Press: New York, and London 1974. 496 pp.

通过与动物行为的类比，社会学家可以将这些行为称为领土行为和支配行为。根据共同目标的压力和个人的各种技能，领导力、支配力或权威的差异将发展。一旦这些关系巩固，他们的角色，规范和制裁，一个富有成效的团队将建立起来。Cit.你好。斯科特，约翰 · 保罗。《动物行为》 ，芝加哥大学出版社，1959年，281页。《灵长类动物的攻击性、地域性与仇外心理》 ，学术出版社: 纽约，伦敦1974年版。496页。

Aggression is the mark of unsettled dominance order. Productive group cooperation requires that both dominance order and territorial arrangements (identity, self-concept) be settled with respect to the common goal and within the particular group. Some individuals may withdraw from interaction or be excluded from the developing group. Depending on the number of individuals in the original collection of strangers, and the number of "hangers-on" that are tolerated, one or more competing groups of ten or less may form, and the competition for territory and dominance will then also be manifested in the inter group transactions.

Aggression is the mark of unsettled dominance order. Productive group cooperation requires that both dominance order and territorial arrangements (identity, self-concept) be settled with respect to the common goal and within the particular group. Some individuals may withdraw from interaction or be excluded from the developing group. Depending on the number of individuals in the original collection of strangers, and the number of "hangers-on" that are tolerated, one or more competing groups of ten or less may form, and the competition for territory and dominance will then also be manifested in the inter group transactions.

攻击性是不稳定的统治秩序的标志。生产性群体合作要求支配秩序和地域安排(身份、自我概念)都能够针对共同的目标和在特定群体内部得到解决。有些人可能会退出互动或被排除在发展中的群体之外。取决于原始集合中的个体数量，以及被容忍的“附庸”数量，一个或多个10人或更少的竞争集团可能形成，而对领土和统治地位的竞争也将在集团间的交易中体现出来。

Dispersal and transformation

Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There are numerous reasons for stable groups to "malfunction" or to disperse, but essentially this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements of the definition of group provided by Sherif. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions status or of norms).

Two or more people in interacting situations will over time develop stable territorial relationships. As described above, these may or may not develop into groups. But stable groups can also break up in to several sets of territorial relationships. There are numerous reasons for stable groups to "malfunction" or to disperse, but essentially this is because of loss of compliance with one or more elements of the definition of group provided by Sherif. The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions status or of norms).

在相互作用的情况下，两个或两个以上的人会随着时间的推移发展出稳定的领土关系。如上所述，这些可能会或可能不会发展成群体。但是稳定的群体也可以分裂成几组领土关系。有许多原因导致稳定的群体“失灵”或者分散，但是本质上这是因为对 Sherif 提供的群体定义中的一个或多个元素的遵从性的丧失。导致团队失灵的两个最常见的原因是过多的个体的加入，以及领导者未能实现共同的目标，尽管失灵可能是由于任何其他因素的失败(例如，混乱的状态或规范)。

In a society, there is a need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavors than can be accommodated by a few separate groups. The military has been the best example as to how this is done in its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies, corporations, government agencies, clubs, and so on have all developed comparable (if less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider the neighborhood, the country club, or the megachurch, which are basically territorial organizations who support large social purposes. Any such large organizations may need only islands of cohesive leadership.

In a society, there is a need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavors than can be accommodated by a few separate groups. The military has been the best example as to how this is done in its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions. Private companies, corporations, government agencies, clubs, and so on have all developed comparable (if less formal and standardized) systems when the number of members or employees exceeds the number that can be accommodated in an effective group. Not all larger social structures require the cohesion that may be found in the small group. Consider the neighborhood, the country club, or the megachurch, which are basically territorial organizations who support large social purposes. Any such large organizations may need only islands of cohesive leadership.

在一个社会中，需要有更多的人参与合作努力，而不是由几个单独的团体来容纳。军队已经是最好的例子，说明如何做到这一点，在其分级阵列班，排，连，营，团和师。私人公司、公司、政府机构、俱乐部等等，都发展了可比较的(如果不那么正式和标准化的话)系统，当成员或雇员的数量超过了一个有效团体所能容纳的数量时。并非所有较大的社会结构都需要在小群体中发现的凝聚力。考虑一下社区、乡村俱乐部或大教堂，它们基本上是支持大型社会目标的领土组织。任何这样的大型组织可能只需要有凝聚力的领导力岛屿。

For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long-standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few hangers on. The key concept is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive limit to this span of attention in individuals is often set at seven. Rapid shifting of attention can push the limit to about ten. After ten, subgroups will inevitably start to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance-order, and individuality, with confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and one teacher offers a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of subgroups.

For a functioning group to attempt to add new members in a casual way is a certain prescription for failure, loss of efficiency, or disorganization. The number of functioning members in a group can be reasonably flexible between five and ten, and a long-standing cohesive group may be able to tolerate a few hangers on. The key concept is that the value and success of a group is obtained by each member maintaining a distinct, functioning identity in the minds of each of the members. The cognitive limit to this span of attention in individuals is often set at seven. Rapid shifting of attention can push the limit to about ten. After ten, subgroups will inevitably start to form with the attendant loss of purpose, dominance-order, and individuality, with confusion of roles and rules. The standard classroom with twenty to forty pupils and one teacher offers a rueful example of one supposed leader juggling a number of subgroups.

对于一个正常运作的团队来说，试图以一种随意的方式增加新成员是失败、效率下降或者组织混乱的一种处方。一个团队中有功能的成员的数量可以在5到10之间相当灵活，并且一个长期的有凝聚力的团队可能能够容忍少数几个成员。关键的概念是，一个团体的价值和成功是由每个成员在每个成员的头脑中保持一个独特的、有效的身份而获得的。个体对这种注意力持续时间的认知极限通常设定在7分钟。注意力的快速转移可能会将注意力限制在10分钟左右。10岁以后，子群体将不可避免地开始形成，随之而来的是目标、统治秩序和个性的丧失，以及角色和规则的混乱。二十到四十个学生和一个老师的标准教室提供了一个可悲的例子，一个假定的领导者玩弄了许多小组。

Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in individuals); weakening of a settled dominance-order; and weakening or failure of the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation, or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group. This is the most common factor.

Weakening of the common purpose once a group is well established can be attributed to: adding new members; unsettled conflicts of identities (i.e., territorial problems in individuals); weakening of a settled dominance-order; and weakening or failure of the leader to tend to the group. The actual loss of a leader is frequently fatal to a group, unless there was lengthy preparation for the transition. The loss of the leader tends to dissolve all dominance relationships, as well as weakening dedication to common purpose, differentiation of roles, and maintenance of norms. The most common symptoms of a troubled group are loss of efficiency, diminished participation, or weakening of purpose, as well as an increase in verbal aggression. Often, if a strong common purpose is still present, a simple reorganization with a new leader and a few new members will be sufficient to re-establish the group, which is somewhat easier than forming an entirely new group. This is the most common factor.

一旦一个群体建立起来，共同目标的削弱可以归因于: 增加新成员; 未解决的身份冲突(例如，个人的领土问题) ; 已确定的统治秩序的削弱; 以及领导者照顾群体的削弱或失败。除非为过渡做了长时间的准备，否则领导人的实际丧失往往对一个团体是致命的。失去领导者往往会瓦解所有的支配关系，同时削弱对共同目标的奉献精神，角色分化和规范的维护。问题群体最常见的症状是效率下降、参与程度降低、目的性减弱，以及言语攻击性增强。通常，如果一个强大的共同目标仍然存在，一个简单的重组与一个新的领导人和一些新的成员将足以重新建立一个小组，这是比组成一个完全新的小组更容易。这是最常见的因素。

See also

• Bureaucracy
• Club (organization)
• Corporate group
• Crowd
• Crowd psychology
• Globalization
• Group conflict
• Group dynamics
• Group emotion
• Group narcissism
• Institution
• Intergroup relations
• Loneliness
• Mob rule
• Public opinion
• Secret society
• Social class
• Social isolation
• Social network
• Social organization
• Social representation
• Sociology of sport
• Status group
• Types of social groups

• Bureaucracy
• Club (organization)
• Corporate group
• Crowd
• Crowd psychology
• Globalization
• Group conflict
• Group dynamics
• Group emotion
• Group narcissism
• Institution
• Intergroup relations
• Loneliness
• Mob rule
• Public opinion
• Secret society
• Social class
• Social isolation
• Social network
• Social organization
• Social representation
• Sociology of sport
• Status group
• Types of social groups

• 群体冲突
• 群体动力学
• 群体情感
• 群体自恋
• 制度
• 群体间关系
• 孤独
• 群体规则
• 公众意见
• 秘密社会
• 阶级
• 社会隔离
• 社会网络
• 社会组织
• 社会代表性
• 体育社会学
• 地位群体
• 社会群体类型

References

• Gladwell, Malcolm (2002), The tipping point: How little things can make a big difference, Boston: Little, Brown & Co., ISBN 0-316-31696-2

External links

• 模板:Commons category-inline

= 外部链接 =

Category:Social psychology Category:Sociological terminology

分类: 社会心理学分类: 社会学术语

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Social group. Its edit history can be viewed at 社会团体/edithistory