更改

诸如Affinnova（被尼尔森收购），Google，InnoCentive，Marketocracy和Threadless等公司已经成功地采用了集体智能的概念，通过其研发（R＆D），客户服务和知识管理实现了下一代技术变革。 。

诸如Affinnova（被尼尔森收购），Google，InnoCentive，Marketocracy和Threadless等公司已经成功地采用了集体智能的概念，通过其研发（R＆D），客户服务和知识管理实现了下一代技术变革。 。

=== Cooperation ===

=== Cooperation 合作 ===

==== Networks of trust ====

==== Networks of trust 信任网络====

[[File:Application of collective intelligence in Millennium Project.png|thumb|left|Application of collective intelligence in the Millennium Project]]

[[文件:集体智能在千年计划中的应用.png|缩略图|左|application of collective intelligence in the millennium project]]

In 2012, the ''Global Futures Collective Intelligence System'' (GFIS) was created by [[The Millennium Project]], which epitomizes collective intelligence as the synergistic intersection among data/information/knowledge, software/hardware, and expertise/insights that has a recursive learning process for better decision-making than the individual players alone.

 

 

In 2012, the ''Global Futures Collective Intelligence System'' (GFIS) was created by [[The Millennium Project]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.millennium-project.org/millennium/GFIS.html|title=Global Futures Intelligence System|website=www.millennium-project.org|access-date=2016-12-07}}</ref> which epitomizes collective intelligence as the synergistic intersection among data/information/knowledge, software/hardware, and expertise/insights that has a recursive learning process for better decision-making than the individual players alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.millennium-project.org/millennium/GFIS.html|title=Global Futures Intelligence System|website=www.millennium-project.org|access-date=2016-12-11}}</ref>

In 2012, the Global Futures Collective Intelligence System (GFIS) was created by The Millennium Project, which epitomizes collective intelligence as the synergistic intersection among data/information/knowledge, software/hardware, and expertise/insights that has a recursive learning process for better decision-making than the individual players alone.

In 2012, the Global Futures Collective Intelligence System (GFIS) was created by The Millennium Project, which epitomizes collective intelligence as the synergistic intersection among data/information/knowledge, software/hardware, and expertise/insights that has a recursive learning process for better decision-making than the individual players alone.

2012年，千年项目创建了全球未来集体智慧系统(GFIS) ，该系统集中体现了集体智慧，即数据 / 信息 / 知识、软件 / 硬件以及专门知识 / 见解之间的协同交汇，具有一个循环学习过程，以比单个行为者更好地做出决策。

2012年，千年计划创建了全球集体智能系统Global Futures Collective Intelligence System（GFIS），因为它将数据/信息/知识，软件/硬件以及技术/见解进行了协同处理，使其成为了集体智能最贴切的代表。与单独的各项参与模块相比，它具有递归学习的处理能力，可以更好地进行决策。

New media are often associated with the promotion and enhancement of collective intelligence. The ability of new media to easily store and retrieve information, predominantly through databases and the Internet, allows for it to be shared without difficulty. Thus, through interaction with new media, knowledge easily passes between sources  resulting in a form of collective intelligence. The use of interactive new media, particularly the internet, promotes online interaction and this distribution of knowledge between users.

New media are often associated with the promotion and enhancement of collective intelligence. The ability of new media to easily store and retrieve information, predominantly through databases and the Internet, allows for it to be shared without difficulty. Thus, through interaction with new media, knowledge easily passes between sources  resulting in a form of collective intelligence. The use of interactive new media, particularly the internet, promotes online interaction and this distribution of knowledge between users.

Francis Heylighen, Valentin Turchin, and Gottfried Mayer-Kress are among those who view collective intelligence through the lens of computer science and cybernetics. In their view, the Internet enables collective intelligence at the widest, planetary scale, thus facilitating the emergence of a global brain.

Francis Heylighen, Valentin Turchin, and Gottfried Mayer-Kress are among those who view collective intelligence through the lens of computer science and cybernetics. In their view, the Internet enables collective intelligence at the widest, planetary scale, thus facilitating the emergence of a global brain.

弗朗西斯 · 海莱恩(Francis Heylighen)、瓦伦丁 · 图尔钦(Valentin Turchin)和戈特弗里德 · 梅耶-克雷斯(Gottfried Mayer-Kress)等人都是从计算机科学和控制论的角度来看待集体智慧的。在他们看来，互联网使集体智慧在最广泛的，全球规模，从而促进了全球大脑的出现。

弗朗西斯·海里格森Francis Heylighen，瓦伦丁·图尔钦Valentin Turchin和戈特弗里德·梅耶·克雷斯Gottfried Mayer-Kress都是通过计算机科学和控制论的视角看待集体智能。他们认为，互联网可以在最广泛的地球尺度上实现集体智能，从而促进全球大脑的出现。

The developer of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], aimed to promote sharing and publishing of information globally. Later his employer opened up the technology for free use. In the early '90s, the Internet's potential was still untapped, until the mid-1990s when 'critical mass', as termed by the head of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Dr. [[J.C.R. Licklider]], demanded more accessibility and utility.<ref name="Weiss, A. 2005 pp. 19-23">Weiss, A. (2005). The Power of Collective Intelligence. Collective Intelligence, pp. 19–23</ref> The driving force of this Internet-based collective intelligence is the digitization of information and communication. [[Henry Jenkins]], a key theorist of new media and media convergence draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture {{Harv|Flew|2008}}. He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contribute to the development of such skills.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|url=http://labweb.education.wisc.edu/curric606/readings/Jenkins2002.pdf|title=INTERACTIVE AUDIENCES? THE 'COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE' OF MEDIA FANS|last=Henry|first=Jenkins|access-date=December 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426232104/https://labweb.education.wisc.edu/curric606/readings/Jenkins2002.pdf|archive-date=26 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Collective intelligence is not merely a quantitative contribution of information from all cultures, it is also qualitative.<ref name=":25" />

The developer of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], aimed to promote sharing and publishing of information globally. Later his employer opened up the technology for free use. In the early '90s, the Internet's potential was still untapped, until the mid-1990s when 'critical mass', as termed by the head of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Dr. [[J.C.R. Licklider]], demanded more accessibility and utility. The driving force of this Internet-based collective intelligence is the digitization of information and communication. [[Henry Jenkins]], a key theorist of new media and media convergence draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture {{Harv|Flew|2008}}. He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contribute to the development of such skills.

The developer of the World Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee, aimed to promote sharing and publishing of information globally. Later his employer opened up the technology for free use. In the early '90s, the Internet's potential was still untapped, until the mid-1990s when 'critical mass', as termed by the head of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Dr. J.C.R. Licklider, demanded more accessibility and utility. The driving force of this Internet-based collective intelligence is the digitization of information and communication. Henry Jenkins, a key theorist of new media and media convergence draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture . He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contribute to the development of such skills. Collective intelligence is not merely a quantitative contribution of information from all cultures, it is also qualitative.

The developer of the World Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee, aimed to promote sharing and publishing of information globally. Later his employer opened up the technology for free use. In the early '90s, the Internet's potential was still untapped, until the mid-1990s when 'critical mass', as termed by the head of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Dr. J.C.R. Licklider, demanded more accessibility and utility. The driving force of this Internet-based collective intelligence is the digitization of information and communication. Henry Jenkins, a key theorist of new media and media convergence draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture . He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contribute to the development of such skills. Collective intelligence is not merely a quantitative contribution of information from all cultures, it is also qualitative.

万维网的开发者，蒂姆伯纳斯李，旨在促进全球信息的共享和发布。后来，他的雇主开放了这项技术供免费使用。在90年代早期，互联网的潜力还没有被开发出来，直到90年代中期，高级研究计划署(ARPA)负责人 j.c.r 博士称之为“临界质量”。Licklider 要求更多的可访问性和实用性。这种基于互联网的集体智慧的驱动力是信息和通信的数字化。新媒体和 media concentration 的核心理论家 Henry Jenkins 提出了集体智慧可以归因于 media concentration 和参与式文化的理论。他批评当代教育未能将集体解决问题的在线趋势纳入课堂，指出“而集体智慧社区鼓励作为一个团体、学校为个人工作的所有权”。詹金斯认为，知识社区内的互动为年轻人建立了重要的技能，通过集体智慧社区的团队合作有助于这些技能的发展。集体智慧不仅仅是来自所有文化的信息的定量贡献，它也是定性的。

万维网创始人蒂姆·伯纳斯·李Tim Berners-Lee，曾以促进全球信息共享和发作为目标开发了万维网。后来，他的雇主开放了该技术以供大家免费使用。在90年代初期，互联网的潜力一直没有得到开发，直到1990年代中期，高级研究计划局（ARPA）负责人J.C.R. Licklider博士将其称为“临界质量”，并要求其具有更强的可访问性和实用性。这种基于互联网的集体智能驱动力是信息和通信的数字化。研究新媒体出现和媒体融合的关键理论家亨利·詹金斯Henry Jenkins借鉴了其概念，认为集体智能可以归因于媒体融合和参与性文化（Flew 2008）。他批判当代教育未能将集体智能理念的趋势纳入课堂，比如说可以通过在线集群智慧解决问题这一思想。并指出“通过集体智能社区鼓励以集体为单位进行工作学习，而学校则需要对个人评分”。詹金斯认为，知识社区内的互动为年轻人创造了至关重要的技能，而通过集体智能社区的团队合作则有助于此类技能的发展。集体智能不仅是来自所有文化信息的定量贡献，同样也是定性存在。

[[Pierre Lévy|Lévy]] and [[Derrick de Kerckhove|de Kerckhove]] consider CI from a mass communications perspective, focusing on the ability of networked information and communication technologies to enhance the community knowledge pool. They suggest that these communications tools enable humans to interact and to share and collaborate with both ease and speed (Flew 2008). With the development of the [[Internet]] and its widespread use, the opportunity to contribute to knowledge-building communities, such as [[Wikipedia]], is greater than ever before. These computer networks give participating users the opportunity to store and to retrieve knowledge through the collective access to these databases and allow them to "harness the hive"<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Media: an introduction.|last=Flew|first=Terry|publisher=Oxford University Press.|year=2008|isbn=|location=Melbourne|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Researchers at the [[MIT Center for Collective Intelligence]] research and explore collective intelligence of groups of people and computers.<ref>[http://cci.mit.edu/people/index.html MIT Center for Collective Intelligence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611041615/http://cci.mit.edu/people/index.html |date=11 June 2010 }}. Cci.mit.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-13.</ref>

[[Pierre Lévy|Lévy]] and [[Derrick de Kerckhove|de Kerckhove]] consider CI from a mass communications perspective, focusing on the ability of networked information and communication technologies to enhance the community knowledge pool. They suggest that these communications tools enable humans to interact and to share and collaborate with both ease and speed (Flew 2008). With the development of the [[Internet]] and its widespread use, the opportunity to contribute to knowledge-building communities, such as [[Wikipedia]], is greater than ever before. These computer networks give participating users the opportunity to store and to retrieve knowledge through the collective access to these databases and allow them to "harness the hive" Press.|year=2008|isbn=|location=Melbourne|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Researchers at the [[MIT Center for Collective Intelligence]] research and explore collective intelligence of groups of people and computers.

Lévy and de Kerckhove consider CI from a mass communications perspective, focusing on the ability of networked information and communication technologies to enhance the community knowledge pool. They suggest that these communications tools enable humans to interact and to share and collaborate with both ease and speed (Flew 2008). With the development of the Internet and its widespread use, the opportunity to contribute to knowledge-building communities, such as Wikipedia, is greater than ever before. These computer networks give participating users the opportunity to store and to retrieve knowledge through the collective access to these databases and allow them to "harness the hive" Researchers at the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence research and explore collective intelligence of groups of people and computers.

Lévy and de Kerckhove consider CI from a mass communications perspective, focusing on the ability of networked information and communication technologies to enhance the community knowledge pool. They suggest that these communications tools enable humans to interact and to share and collaborate with both ease and speed (Flew 2008). With the development of the Internet and its widespread use, the opportunity to contribute to knowledge-building communities, such as Wikipedia, is greater than ever before. These computer networks give participating users the opportunity to store and to retrieve knowledge through the collective access to these databases and allow them to "harness the hive" Researchers at the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence research and explore collective intelligence of groups of people and computers.

In this context collective intelligence is often confused with [[shared knowledge]]. The former is the sum total of information held individually by members of a community while the latter is information that is believed to be true and known by all members of the community.<ref>Jenkins, H. 2006. ''[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780814742815 Convergence Culture]''. New York: New York University Press.</ref> Collective intelligence as represented by [[Web 2.0]] has less user engagement than [[collaborative intelligence]]. An art project using Web 2.0 platforms is "Shared Galaxy", an experiment developed by an anonymous artist to create a collective identity that shows up as one person on several platforms like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Second Life. The password is written in the profiles and the accounts named "Shared Galaxy" are open to be used by anyone. In this way many take part in being one.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scardamalia|first=Marlene|last2=Bereiter|first2=Carl|date=1994-07-01|title=Computer Support for Knowledge-Building Communities|journal=Journal of the Learning Sciences|volume=3|issue=3|pages=265–283|doi=10.1207/s15327809jls0303_3|citeseerx=10.1.1.600.463}}</ref> Another art project using collective intelligence to produce artistic work is Curatron, where a large group of artists together decides on a smaller group that they think would make a good collaborative group. The process is used based on an algorithm computing the collective preferences<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vocativ.com/culture/art-culture/math-takes-guessing-art-curation/|title=Math Takes the Guessing Out of Artistic Collaboration|date=9 July 2014|publisher=}}</ref> In creating what he calls 'CI-Art', Nova Scotia based artist Mathew Aldred follows Pierry Lévy's definition of collective intelligence.<ref>Mathew Aldred, May 2016. {{cite web|title=What is Collective Intelligence Art?|year=2016|url=http://www.collectiveintelligenceart.ca/collective-intelligence-art.html|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002024912/http://www.collectiveintelligenceart.ca/collective-intelligence-art.html|archive-date=2 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally.<ref>Amherst News Citizen Record, March 17, 2016. {{cite web|title=Community creation taking place in Oxford|year=2016|url=http://www.cumberlandnewsnow.com/News/Local/2016-03-17/article-4469315/Community-creation-taking-place-in-Oxford/1|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006015018/http://www.cumberlandnewsnow.com/News/Local/2016-03-17/article-4469315/Community-creation-taking-place-in-Oxford/1|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Oxford Regional Education Centre{{cite web|title=Nexus OREC|year=2016|url=http://www.goldenbears.ca/nexus-orec.html|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014256/http://www.goldenbears.ca/nexus-orec.html|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Later work developed by Aldred used the UNU [[swarm intelligence]] system to create digital drawings and paintings.<ref>UNU Interview with artist, May 23, 2016. {{cite web|title=Artwork from an emergent hive mind|year=2016|url=http://unu.ai/ci-art/}}</ref>  The Oxford Riverside Gallery (Nova Scotia) held a public CI-Art event in May 2016, which connected with online participants internationally.<ref>Oxford Riverside Gallery News, May 2016. {{cite web|title=CI-Art event at Oxford Riverside Gallery 'Nexus' opening|year=2016|url=http://www.oxfordriversidegallery.ca/news/ci-art-event-at-oxford-riverside-gallery-nexus-opening}}</ref>

In this context collective intelligence is often confused with [[shared knowledge]]. The former is the sum total of information held individually by members of a community while the latter is information that is believed to be true and known by all members of the community. Collective intelligence as represented by [[Web 2.0]] has less user engagement than [[collaborative intelligence]]. An art project using Web 2.0 platforms is "Shared Galaxy", an experiment developed by an anonymous artist to create a collective identity that shows up as one person on several platforms like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Second Life. The password is written in the profiles and the accounts named "Shared Galaxy" are open to be used by anyone. In this way many take part in being one. Another art project using collective intelligence to produce artistic work is Curatron, where a large group of artists together decides on a smaller group that they think would make a good collaborative group. The process is used based on an algorithm computing the collective preferences In creating what he calls 'CI-Art', Nova Scotia based artist Mathew Aldred follows Pierry Lévy's definition of collective intelligence. Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally. Later work developed by Aldred used the UNU [[swarm intelligence]] system to create digital drawings and paintings. The Oxford Riverside Gallery (Nova Scotia) held a public CI-Art event in May 2016, which connected with online participants internationally.

In this context collective intelligence is often confused with shared knowledge. The former is the sum total of information held individually by members of a community while the latter is information that is believed to be true and known by all members of the community. Collective intelligence as represented by Web 2.0 has less user engagement than collaborative intelligence. An art project using Web 2.0 platforms is "Shared Galaxy", an experiment developed by an anonymous artist to create a collective identity that shows up as one person on several platforms like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Second Life. The password is written in the profiles and the accounts named "Shared Galaxy" are open to be used by anyone. In this way many take part in being one. Another art project using collective intelligence to produce artistic work is Curatron, where a large group of artists together decides on a smaller group that they think would make a good collaborative group. The process is used based on an algorithm computing the collective preferences In creating what he calls 'CI-Art', Nova Scotia based artist Mathew Aldred follows Pierry Lévy's definition of collective intelligence.  Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally. Later work developed by Aldred used the UNU swarm intelligence system to create digital drawings and paintings.  The Oxford Riverside Gallery (Nova Scotia) held a public CI-Art event in May 2016, which connected with online participants internationally.

In this context collective intelligence is often confused with shared knowledge. The former is the sum total of information held individually by members of a community while the latter is information that is believed to be true and known by all members of the community. Collective intelligence as represented by Web 2.0 has less user engagement than collaborative intelligence. An art project using Web 2.0 platforms is "Shared Galaxy", an experiment developed by an anonymous artist to create a collective identity that shows up as one person on several platforms like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Second Life. The password is written in the profiles and the accounts named "Shared Galaxy" are open to be used by anyone. In this way many take part in being one. Another art project using collective intelligence to produce artistic work is Curatron, where a large group of artists together decides on a smaller group that they think would make a good collaborative group. The process is used based on an algorithm computing the collective preferences In creating what he calls 'CI-Art', Nova Scotia based artist Mathew Aldred follows Pierry Lévy's definition of collective intelligence.  Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally. Later work developed by Aldred used the UNU swarm intelligence system to create digital drawings and paintings.  The Oxford Riverside Gallery (Nova Scotia) held a public CI-Art event in May 2016, which connected with online participants internationally.

在这种情况下，集体智慧常常与共享知识相混淆。前者是社区成员个人掌握的信息的总和，而后者是社区所有成员都相信是真实的和知道的信息。以 Web 2.0为代表的集体智慧与协同智能相比，用户参与度更低。使用 Web 2.0平台的一个艺术项目是“共享银河”(Shared Galaxy) ，这是一位匿名艺术家开发的一个实验，目的是创建一个集体身份，在 MySpace、 Facebook、 YouTube 和“第二人生”(Second Life)等多个平台上以一个人的形。密码写在个人资料中，名为“ Shared Galaxy”的账户可供任何人使用。以这种方式，许多人参与成为一个。另一个利用集体智慧来创作艺术作品的艺术项目是 Curatron，在这个项目中，一大群艺术家一起决定组建一个较小的团队，他们认为这个团队可以成为一个很好的合作团队。这个过程是基于计算集体偏好的算法来进行的。在创造他所谓的“集体艺术”时，新斯科舍艺术家马修 · 奥尔德雷德遵循皮埃尔 · 维对集体智慧的定义。2016年3月，来自新斯科舍牛津大学和世界各地的400多人参加了奥尔德雷德的 CI-Art 活动。后来的工作由 Aldred 开发，他使用联合国大学的群体智能系统来创作数码素描和绘画。2016年5月，牛津河畔美术馆(新斯科舍)举办了一次公开的 CI-Art 活动，与国际在线参与者取得了联系。

在这种情况下，集体智能常常与共享知识相混淆。前者是社区成员单独持有的信息的总和，而后者是社区所有成员都认为是真实且已知的信息。以Web 2.0为代表的集体智能比协作智能具有更少的用户参与度。使用Web 2.0平台的艺术项目“共享银河”，是一个由匿名艺术家开发的实验，目的是创建一个集体身份，并在MySpace，Facebook，YouTube和Second Life等多个平台上以这个集体身份出现。密码将写在配置文件中，并且名为“ Shared Galaxy”的帐户开放给任何人使用。通过这种方式，许多人成为一体。Curatron是另一个利用集体智能创作艺术作品的艺术项目，其中一大批艺术家共同决定建立一个较小的团队，他们对其团队的协作表现非常自信。该项目基于一种计算集体偏好的算法。在创建他所谓的“ CI艺术”时，新斯科舍省的艺术家马修·阿尔德雷德Mathew Aldred遵循了皮耶·列维对集体智能的定义。2016年3月，奥尔德雷德的CI-Art活动吸引了来自牛津，新斯科舍省和全球的400多人参加。奥尔德雷德后来开发的工作使用联合国大学群体智能系统来创建数字绘图。牛津河畔画廊（新斯科舍省）于2016年5月举办了一次公共CI艺术活动，与国际在线参与者建立联系。

In [[social bookmarking]] (also called collaborative tagging),<ref name=":26">{{Cite book|last=Millen|first=David R.|last2=Feinberg|first2=Jonathan|last3=Kerr|first3=Bernard|date=2006-01-01|title=Dogear: Social Bookmarking in the Enterprise|journal=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems|series=CHI '06|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=ACM|pages=111–120|doi=10.1145/1124772.1124792|isbn=978-1595933720}}</ref> users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this [[crowdsourcing]] process. The resulting information structure can be seen as reflecting the collective knowledge (or collective intelligence) of a community of users and is commonly called a "[[Folksonomy]]", and the process can be captured by [[models of collaborative tagging]].<ref name=":26" />

In [[social bookmarking]] (also called collaborative tagging), users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this [[crowdsourcing]] process. The resulting information structure can be seen as reflecting the collective knowledge (or collective intelligence) of a community of users and is commonly called a "[[Folksonomy]]", and the process can be captured by [[models of collaborative tagging]].

In social bookmarking (also called collaborative tagging), users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. The resulting information structure can be seen as reflecting the collective knowledge (or collective intelligence) of a community of users and is commonly called a "Folksonomy", and the process can be captured by models of collaborative tagging.

In social bookmarking (also called collaborative tagging), users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. The resulting information structure can be seen as reflecting the collective knowledge (or collective intelligence) of a community of users and is commonly called a "Folksonomy", and the process can be captured by models of collaborative tagging.

Recent research using data from the social bookmarking website [[Delicious (website)|Delicious]], has shown that collaborative tagging systems exhibit a form of [[complex system]]s (or [[Self-organization|self-organizing]]) dynamics.<ref name="WWW07-ref" >Harry Halpin, Valentin Robu, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1242572.1242602 The Complex Dynamics of Collaborative Tagging], Proceedings 6th International Conference on the World Wide Web (WWW'07), Banff, Canada, pp. 211–220, ACM Press, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1145/1460563.1460600|last1=Fu|first1=Wai-Tat|title=Semantic imitation in social tagging|journal=ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction|pages=229|year=2010|isbn=9781605580074}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fu|first1=Wai-Tat|title=A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tagging.|journal=Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Social Computing|pages=66–72|date=August 2009|doi=10.1109/CSE.2009.382|isbn=978-1-4244-5334-4}}</ref> Although there is no central controlled vocabulary to constrain the actions of individual users, the distributions of tags that describe different resources has been shown to converge over time to a stable [[power law]] distributions.<ref name="WWW07-ref" /> Once such stable distributions form, examining the [[correlation]]s between different tags can be used to construct simple folksonomy graphs, which can be efficiently partitioned to obtained a form of community or shared vocabularies.<ref name="TWEB-ref" >Valentin Robu, Harry Halpin, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1594173.1594176 Emergence of consensus and shared vocabularies in collaborative tagging systems], ACM Transactions on the Web (TWEB), Vol. 3(4), article 14, ACM Press, September 2009.</ref> Such vocabularies can be seen as a form of collective intelligence, emerging from the decentralised actions of a community of users. The Wall-it Project is also an example of social bookmarking.<ref>Carlos J. Costa, January 2012. {{cite web|title=Article on Wall-it project|year=2012|url=http://masteropensource.wordpress.com/2012/01/21/wall-it/}}</ref>

Recent research using data from the social bookmarking website [[Delicious (website)|Delicious]], has shown that collaborative tagging systems exhibit a form of [[complex system]]s (or [[Self-organization|self-organizing]]) dynamics.Harry Halpin, Valentin Robu, Hana Shepherd Although there is no central controlled vocabulary to constrain the actions of individual users, the distributions of tags that describe different resources has been shown to converge over time to a stable [[power law]] distributions. Once such stable distributions form, examining the [[correlation]]s between different tags can be used to construct simple folksonomy graphs, which can be efficiently partitioned to obtained a form of community or shared vocabularies.Valentin Robu, Harry Halpin,  

Recent research using data from the social bookmarking website Delicious, has shown that collaborative tagging systems exhibit a form of complex systems (or self-organizing) dynamics. Although there is no central controlled vocabulary to constrain the actions of individual users, the distributions of tags that describe different resources has been shown to converge over time to a stable power law distributions. Such vocabularies can be seen as a form of collective intelligence, emerging from the decentralised actions of a community of users. The Wall-it Project is also an example of social bookmarking.

Recent research using data from the social bookmarking website Delicious, has shown that collaborative tagging systems exhibit a form of complex systems (or self-organizing) dynamics. Although there is no central controlled vocabulary to constrain the actions of individual users, the distributions of tags that describe different resources has been shown to converge over time to a stable power law distributions. Such vocabularies can be seen as a form of collective intelligence, emerging from the decentralised actions of a community of users. The Wall-it Project is also an example of social bookmarking.

最近的研究使用来自社会性书签美味书签网站的数据，已经表明分众分类法系统展示了一种复杂系统(或自组织)动态的形式。虽然没有中央受控词表来约束单个用户的行为，但是描述不同资源的标签的分布已经被证明会随着时间的推移逐渐趋于稳定的幂律分布。这样的词汇可以被看作是一种集体智慧的形式，来自于用户群体的分散行为。墙-it 项目也是社会性书签的一个例子。

近期，通过对社会书签网站Delicious的数据的研究表明，协作标签系统表现出一种复杂的系统（或自组织）动态形式。尽管没有中央控制来约束单个用户的操作，但是不同资源标签的分布已显示出会随着时间推移，逐渐收敛到稳定的幂律分布。一旦这种稳定的分布形成，就可以利用不同标签之间的相关性来构建简单的大众分类图，进而可以对其有效的划分，以获得社区或共享词汇表的形式。这些词汇可以看作是集体智能的一种形式，它源于用户社区的分散行动。Wall-it项目也是社交书签的一个示例。

==== P2P business ====

==== P2P business P2P业务 ====

Research performed by Tapscott and Williams has provided a few examples of the benefits of collective intelligence to business:<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />

Research performed by Tapscott and Williams has provided a few examples of the benefits of collective intelligence to business:

Research performed by Tapscott and Williams has provided a few examples of the benefits of collective intelligence to business:

Research performed by Tapscott and Williams has provided a few examples of the benefits of collective intelligence to business:

At the rate technology is changing, no firm can fully keep up in the innovations needed to compete. Instead, smart firms are drawing on the power of mass collaboration to involve participation of the people they could not employ. This also helps generate continual interest in the firm in the form of those drawn to new idea creation as well as investment opportunities.

At the rate technology is changing, no firm can fully keep up in the innovations needed to compete. Instead, smart firms are drawing on the power of mass collaboration to involve participation of the people they could not employ. This also helps generate continual interest in the firm in the form of those drawn to new idea creation as well as investment opportunities.

 

 

;Demand creation

;Demand creation

Firms can create a new market for complementary goods by engaging in open source community. Firms also are able to expand into new fields that they previously would not have been able to without the addition of resources and collaboration from the community. This creates, as mentioned before, a new market for complementary goods for the products in said new fields.

Firms can create a new market for complementary goods by engaging in open source community. Firms also are able to expand into new fields that they previously would not have been able to without the addition of resources and collaboration from the community. This creates, as mentioned before, a new market for complementary goods for the products in said new fields.

 

 

;Costs reduction

;Costs reduction

Mass collaboration can help to reduce costs dramatically. Firms can release a specific software or product to be evaluated or debugged by online communities. The results will be more personal, robust and error-free products created in a short amount of time and costs. New ideas can also be generated and explored by collaboration of online communities creating opportunities for free R&D outside the confines of the company.

Mass collaboration can help to reduce costs dramatically. Firms can release a specific software or product to be evaluated or debugged by online communities. The results will be more personal, robust and error-free products created in a short amount of time and costs. New ideas can also be generated and explored by collaboration of online communities creating opportunities for free R&D outside the confines of the company.

==== Open source software ====

==== Open source software 开源软件 ====

Cultural theorist and online community developer, John Banks considered the contribution of online fan communities in the creation of the [[Trainz]] product. He argued that its commercial success was fundamentally dependent upon "the formation and growth of an active and vibrant online fan community that would both actively promote the product and create content- extensions and additions to the game software".<ref name="jbanks">John A.L. Banks. ''Negotiating Participatory Culture in the New Media Environment: Auran and the Trainz Online Community&nbsp;– An (Im)possible Relation'', The University of Queensland. School of English, Media Studies and Art History. MelbourneDAC2003</ref>

Cultural theorist and online community developer, John Banks considered the contribution of online fan communities in the creation of the [[Trainz]] product. He argued that its commercial success was fundamentally dependent upon "the formation and growth of an active and vibrant online fan community that would both actively promote the product and create content- extensions and additions to the game software".

Cultural theorist and online community developer, John Banks considered the contribution of online fan communities in the creation of the Trainz product. He argued that its commercial success was fundamentally dependent upon "the formation and growth of an active and vibrant online fan community that would both actively promote the product and create content- extensions and additions to the game software".

Cultural theorist and online community developer, John Banks considered the contribution of online fan communities in the creation of the Trainz product. He argued that its commercial success was fundamentally dependent upon "the formation and growth of an active and vibrant online fan community that would both actively promote the product and create content- extensions and additions to the game software".

The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. This gives rise to fundamental legal issues, highlighted by Lessig<ref>L, Lessig,(2006)Code Version 2.0 (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.</ref> and Bray and Konsynski,<ref>Bray, DA & Konsynski, BR, 2007, ''Virtual Worlds, Virtual Economies, Virtual Institutions'', viewed 10 October 2008, p. 1-27 <http://ssrn.com/abstract=962501></ref> such as [[intellectual property]] and property ownership rights.

The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. This gives rise to fundamental legal issues, highlighted by Lessig and Bray and Konsynski, such as [[intellectual property]] and property ownership rights.

The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. This gives rise to fundamental legal issues, highlighted by Lessig and Bray and Konsynski, such as intellectual property and property ownership rights.

The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. This gives rise to fundamental legal issues, highlighted by Lessig and Bray and Konsynski, such as intellectual property and property ownership rights.

Gosney extends this issue of Collective Intelligence in videogames one step further in his discussion of [[alternate reality gaming]]. This genre, he describes as an "across-media game that deliberately blurs the line between the in-game and out-of-game experiences"<ref name=":27">Gosney, J.W, 2005, ''Beyond Reality: A Guide to Alternate Reality Gaming'', Thomson Course Technology, Boston.</ref> as events that happen outside the game reality "reach out" into the player's lives in order to bring them together. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.<ref name=":27" />

Gosney extends this issue of Collective Intelligence in videogames one step further in his discussion of [[alternate reality gaming]]. This genre, he describes as an "across-media game that deliberately blurs the line between the in-game and out-of-game experiences" as events that happen outside the game reality "reach out" into the player's lives in order to bring them together. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.

Gosney extends this issue of Collective Intelligence in videogames one step further in his discussion of alternate reality gaming. This genre, he describes as an "across-media game that deliberately blurs the line between the in-game and out-of-game experiences" as events that happen outside the game reality "reach out" into the player's lives in order to bring them together. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.

Gosney extends this issue of Collective Intelligence in videogames one step further in his discussion of alternate reality gaming. This genre, he describes as an "across-media game that deliberately blurs the line between the in-game and out-of-game experiences" as events that happen outside the game reality "reach out" into the player's lives in order to bring them together. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.

==== Benefits of co-operation ====

==== Benefits of co-operation 合作受益 ====

Co-operation helps to solve most important and most interesting multi-science problems. In his book, James Surowiecki mentioned that most scientists think that benefits of co-operation have much more value when compared to potential costs. Co-operation works also because at best it guarantees number of different viewpoints. Because of the possibilities of technology global co-operation is nowadays much easier and productive than before. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits.

Co-operation helps to solve most important and most interesting multi-science problems. In his book, James Surowiecki mentioned that most scientists think that benefits of co-operation have much more value when compared to potential costs. Co-operation works also because at best it guarantees number of different viewpoints. Because of the possibilities of technology global co-operation is nowadays much easier and productive than before. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits.

Co-operation helps to solve most important and most interesting multi-science problems. In his book, James Surowiecki mentioned that most scientists think that benefits of co-operation have much more value when compared to potential costs. Co-operation works also because at best it guarantees number of different viewpoints. Because of the possibilities of technology global co-operation is nowadays much easier and productive than before. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits.

Co-operation helps to solve most important and most interesting multi-science problems. In his book, James Surowiecki mentioned that most scientists think that benefits of co-operation have much more value when compared to potential costs. Co-operation works also because at best it guarantees number of different viewpoints. Because of the possibilities of technology global co-operation is nowadays much easier and productive than before. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits.

For example, why do scientists co-operate? Science has become more and more isolated and each science field has spread even more and it is impossible for one person to be aware of all developments. This is true especially in experimental research where highly advanced equipment requires special skills. With co-operation scientists can use information from different fields and use it effectively instead of gathering all the information just by reading by themselves."<ref name="Surowiecki">Surowiecki, J., 2007 'The Wisdom of crowds. Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few'</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2017}}

For example, why do scientists co-operate? Science has become more and more isolated and each science field has spread even more and it is impossible for one person to be aware of all developments. This is true especially in experimental research where highly advanced equipment requires special skills. With co-operation scientists can use information from different fields and use it effectively instead of gathering all the information just by reading by themselves."

For example, why do scientists co-operate? Science has become more and more isolated and each science field has spread even more and it is impossible for one person to be aware of all developments. This is true especially in experimental research where highly advanced equipment requires special skills. With co-operation scientists can use information from different fields and use it effectively instead of gathering all the information just by reading by themselves."

For example, why do scientists co-operate? Science has become more and more isolated and each science field has spread even more and it is impossible for one person to be aware of all developments. This is true especially in experimental research where highly advanced equipment requires special skills. With co-operation scientists can use information from different fields and use it effectively instead of gathering all the information just by reading by themselves."

 

 

=== Coordination ===

=== Coordination ===