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Adaptive behavior refers to behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others.  This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education.  Adaptive behavior relates to every day skills or tasks that the "average" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.

Adaptive behavior refers to behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others.  This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education.  Adaptive behavior relates to every day skills or tasks that the "average" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.

适应性行为是指能够使一个人(通常是在儿童的环境中)在适应他或她的环境中获得最大的成功并且与他人冲突最少的行为。这是一个用于心理学和特殊教育领域的术语。适应性行为与“一般”人能够完成的日常技能或任务有关，类似于“生活技能”这个术语。

<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为</font>是指能够使一个人(通常是在儿童的环境中)在适应他或她的环境中获得最大的成功并且与他人冲突最少的行为。这是一个用于心理学和特殊教育领域的术语。适应性行为与“一般”人能够完成的日常技能或任务有关，类似于“生活技能”这个术语。

Nonconstructive or disruptive social or personal behaviors can sometimes be used to achieve a constructive outcome. For example, a constant repetitive action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the behavior can be adapted to something else.

Nonconstructive or disruptive social or personal behaviors can sometimes be used to achieve a constructive outcome. For example, a constant repetitive action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the behavior can be adapted to something else.

==Examples==

==Examples==

 

*A child born with cerebral palsy will most likely have a form of [[hemiparesis]] or [[hemiplegia]] (the weakening, or loss of use, of one side of the body). In order to adapt to one's environment, the child may use these limbs as helpers, in some cases even adapt the use of their mouth and teeth as a tool used for more than just eating or conversation.

*A child born with cerebral palsy will most likely have a form of [[hemiparesis]] or [[hemiplegia]] (the weakening, or loss of use, of one side of the body). In order to adapt to one's environment, the child may use these limbs as helpers, in some cases even adapt the use of their mouth and teeth as a tool used for more than just eating or conversation.

一个出生时患有脑瘫的孩子很可能会有一种偏瘫或半身麻痹（身体一侧功能减弱或丧失使用能力）。为了适应环境，孩子可能会使用这些肢体作为助手，在某些情况下，他们甚至会将他们的嘴和牙齿作为一种工具来使用，而不仅仅是吃饭或聊天  

一个出生时患有脑瘫的孩子很可能会有一种偏瘫或半身麻痹（身体一侧功能减弱或丧失使用能力）。为了适应环境，孩子可能会使用这些肢体作为助手，在某些情况下，他们甚至会将他们的嘴和牙齿作为一种工具来使用，而不仅仅是吃饭或聊天  

==Core problems==

==Core problems==

 

Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene.<ref name="Heward"/> Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.<ref name="Heward"/>

Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene.<ref name="Heward"/> Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.<ref name="Heward"/>

Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene. Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.

Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene. Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.

==Adaptive behaviors in education==

==Adaptive behaviors in education==

 

In education, adaptive behavior is defined as that which (1) meets the needs of the community of stakeholders (parents, teachers, peers, and later employers) and (2) meets the needs of the learner, ''now'' and ''in the future''. Specifically, these behaviors include such things as effective speech, self-help, using money, cooking, and reading, for example.

In education, adaptive behavior is defined as that which (1) meets the needs of the community of stakeholders (parents, teachers, peers, and later employers) and (2) meets the needs of the learner, ''now'' and ''in the future''. Specifically, these behaviors include such things as effective speech, self-help, using money, cooking, and reading, for example.

Training in adaptive behavior is a key component of any educational program, but is critically important for children with special needs. The US Department of Education has allocated billions of dollars ($12.3 billion in 2008) for Special Education programs aimed at improving educational and early intervention outcomes for children with disabilities.  

Training in adaptive behavior is a key component of any educational program, but is critically important for children with special needs. The US Department of Education has allocated billions of dollars ($12.3 billion in 2008) for Special Education programs aimed at improving educational and early intervention outcomes for children with disabilities.  

适应行为训练是任何教育计划的一个关键组成部分，但对于有特殊需要的儿童更为至关重要。美国教育部已经拨款数十亿美元(2008年为123亿美元)用于特殊教育项目，旨在改善残疾儿童的教育和早期干预成果。

<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为</font>训练是任何教育计划的一个关键组成部分，但对于有特殊需要的儿童更为至关重要。美国教育部已经拨款数十亿美元(2008年为123亿美元)用于特殊教育项目，旨在改善残疾儿童的教育和早期干预成果。

In 2001, the [[United States National Research Council]] published a comprehensive review of interventions for children and adults diagnosed with [[autism]]. The review indicates that interventions based on [[applied behavior analysis]] have been effective with these groups.

In 2001, the [[United States National Research Council]] published a comprehensive review of interventions for children and adults diagnosed with [[autism]]. The review indicates that interventions based on [[applied behavior analysis]] have been effective with these groups.

Adaptive behavior includes socially responsible and independent performance of daily activities. However, the specific activities and skills needed may differ from setting to setting. When a student is going to school, school and academic skills are adaptive. However, some of those same skills might be useless or maladaptive in a job settings, so the transition between school and job needs careful attention.

Adaptive behavior includes socially responsible and independent performance of daily activities. However, the specific activities and skills needed may differ from setting to setting. When a student is going to school, school and academic skills are adaptive. However, some of those same skills might be useless or maladaptive in a job settings, so the transition between school and job needs careful attention.

==Specific skills==

==Specific skills==

 

Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal [[moral responsibility|responsibility]] expected of their age and [[social group]].<ref name="Heward">William Heward: ''Exceptional Children'' 2005</ref> Specific skills include:

Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal [[moral responsibility|responsibility]] expected of their age and [[social group]].<ref name="Heward">William Heward: ''Exceptional Children'' 2005</ref> Specific skills include:

Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group. Specific skills include:

Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group. Specific skills include:

适应行为是指人们在日常生活中独立生活、安全适当地发挥作用所必需的与年龄相适应的行为。适应性行为包括生活技能，如梳洗、穿衣、安全、食物处理、工作、理财、清洁、交朋友、社交技能，以及根据他们的年龄和社会群体应承担的个人责任。具体技能包括:

<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为</font>是指人们在日常生活中独立生活、安全适当地发挥作用所必需的与年龄相适应的行为。适应性行为包括生活技能，如梳洗、穿衣、安全、食物处理、工作、理财、清洁、交朋友、社交技能，以及根据他们的年龄和社会群体应承担的个人责任。具体技能包括:

* '''Community access skills'''

* '''Community access skills'''

# Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)<ref>Neef, A.N.; Iwata, B.A.; Page T.J. et al. (1978). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311310/pdf/jaba00110-0019.pdf Public Transportation Skills. In vivo versus classroom instruction]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 331–4.</ref>

# Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)<ref>Neef, A.N.; Iwata, B.A.; Page T.J. et al. (1978). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311310/pdf/jaba00110-0019.pdf Public Transportation Skills. In vivo versus classroom instruction]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 331–4.</ref>

* '''Peer access and retention'''

* '''Peer access and retention'''

# Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)<ref>Nutter D. & Reid D.H. (1978). Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 475–87.</ref>

# Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)<ref>Nutter D. & Reid D.H. (1978). Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 475–87.</ref>

==Adaptive skills==

==Adaptive skills==

 

Every human being must learn a set of skills that is beneficial for the environments and communities they live in. Adaptive skills are stepping stones toward accessing and benefiting from local or remote communities. This means that, in urban environments, to go to the movies, a child will have to learn to navigate through the town or take the bus, read the movie schedule, and pay for the movie. Adaptive skills allow for safer exploration because they provide the learner with an increased awareness of his/her surroundings and of changes in context, that require new adaptive responses to meet the demands and dangers of that new context. Adaptive skills may generate more opportunities to engage in meaningful social interactions and acceptance. Adaptive skills are socially acceptable and desirable at any age and regardless of gender (with the exception of gender specific biological differences such as menstrual care skills, etc.)

Every human being must learn a set of skills that is beneficial for the environments and communities they live in. Adaptive skills are stepping stones toward accessing and benefiting from local or remote communities. This means that, in urban environments, to go to the movies, a child will have to learn to navigate through the town or take the bus, read the movie schedule, and pay for the movie. Adaptive skills allow for safer exploration because they provide the learner with an increased awareness of his/her surroundings and of changes in context, that require new adaptive responses to meet the demands and dangers of that new context. Adaptive skills may generate more opportunities to engage in meaningful social interactions and acceptance. Adaptive skills are socially acceptable and desirable at any age and regardless of gender (with the exception of gender specific biological differences such as menstrual care skills, etc.)

===Learning adaptive skills===

===Learning adaptive skills===

 

Adaptive skills encompass a range of daily situations and they usually start with a [[task analysis]]. The task analysis will reveal all the steps necessary to perform the task in the natural environment. The use of behavior analytic procedures has been documented, with children, adolescents and adults, under the guidance of behavior analysts<ref>[[Professional practice of behavior analysis]]</ref> and supervised behavioral technicians. The list of applications has a broad scope and it is in continuous expansion as more research is carried out in applied behavior analysis (see ''[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]]'', ''[[The Analysis of Verbal Behavior]]'').

Adaptive skills encompass a range of daily situations and they usually start with a [[task analysis]]. The task analysis will reveal all the steps necessary to perform the task in the natural environment. The use of behavior analytic procedures has been documented, with children, adolescents and adults, under the guidance of behavior analysts<ref>[[Professional practice of behavior analysis]]</ref> and supervised behavioral technicians. The list of applications has a broad scope and it is in continuous expansion as more research is carried out in applied behavior analysis (see ''[[Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis]]'', ''[[The Analysis of Verbal Behavior]]'').

== Practopoietic theory ==

== Practopoietic theory ==

 

According to '''practopoietic''' theory,<ref name=Nikolic2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.danko-nikolic.com/?smd_process_download=1&download_id=724|title=Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].|author=Danko Nikolić|date=2014|accessdate=2014-06-06}}</ref> creation of adaptive behavior involves special, ''poietic'' interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of [[cybernetic]] theory in particular, [[good regulator]] theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization&mdash;knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

According to '''practopoietic''' theory,<ref name=Nikolic2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.danko-nikolic.com/?smd_process_download=1&download_id=724|title=Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].|author=Danko Nikolić|date=2014|accessdate=2014-06-06}}</ref> creation of adaptive behavior involves special, ''poietic'' interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of [[cybernetic]] theory in particular, [[good regulator]] theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization&mdash;knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

According to practopoietic theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization&mdash;knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

According to practopoietic theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization&mdash;knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

根据拓扑理论，适应行为的产生涉及到系统组织不同层次之间的特殊的、极性的相互作用。这些相互作用描述的基础上控制论理论，特别是良好的调节定理。在拓扑系统中，较低层次的组织决定了较高层次组织的性质，而不是相反。这确保了较低层次的组织(例如，基因)总是比较高层次的组织拥有更多的控制论上的一般知识——较高层次的知识是较低层次知识的特例。在组织的最高层次存在着明显的行为。认知操作位于这种等级制度的中间部分，高于基因，低于行为。为了使行为具有适应性，我们至少需要三个适应性遍历。

根据<font color="#ff8000"> 拓扑理论</font>，适应行为的产生涉及到系统组织不同层次之间的特殊的、极性的相互作用。这些相互作用描述的基础上控制论理论，特别是良好的调节定理。在拓扑系统中，较低层次的组织决定了较高层次组织的性质，而不是相反。这确保了较低层次的组织(例如，基因)总是比较高层次的组织拥有更多的控制论上的一般知识——较高层次的知识是较低层次知识的特例。在组织的最高层次存在着明显的行为。认知操作位于这种等级制度的中间部分，高于基因，低于行为。为了使行为具有适应性，我们至少需要三个适应性遍历。