“适应行为”的版本间的差异

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<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为</font>包括社会责任和日常活动的独立表现。然而，具体所需要的的活动和技能可能会根据不同背景改变。当学生上学时，学校和学术技能是适应性的。然而，这些技能中的一些在工作环境中可能是无用的或适应不良的，所以学校和工作之间的过渡需要仔细的注意。
 
<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为</font>包括社会责任和日常活动的独立表现。然而，具体所需要的的活动和技能可能会根据不同背景改变。当学生上学时，学校和学术技能是适应性的。然而，这些技能中的一些在工作环境中可能是无用的或适应不良的，所以学校和工作之间的过渡需要仔细的注意。
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==Specific skills==
 
==Specific skills==

2020年10月2日 (五) 20:50的版本

此词条暂由Henry翻译。

25px  此article介紹的是human behaviors。For animal behaviors, see Adaptive behavior (ecology). For computational behavior, see Adaptive algorithm and Adaptation (computer science). For the journal, see Adaptive Behavior (journal).

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Adaptive behavior refers to behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education. Adaptive behavior relates to every day skills or tasks that the "average" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.

Adaptive behavior refers to behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to get along in his or her environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education. Adaptive behavior relates to every day skills or tasks that the "average" person is able to complete, similar to the term life skills.

适应行为是指能够使一个人(通常是在儿童的环境中)在适应他或她的环境中获得最大的成功并且与他人冲突最少的行为。这是一个用于心理学和特殊教育领域的术语。适应性行为与“一般”人能够完成的日常技能或任务有关，类似于“生活技能”这个术语。


Nonconstructive or disruptive social or personal behaviors can sometimes be used to achieve a constructive outcome. For example, a constant repetitive action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the behavior can be adapted to something else.

Nonconstructive or disruptive social or personal behaviors can sometimes be used to achieve a constructive outcome. For example, a constant repetitive action could be re-focused on something that creates or builds something. In other words, the behavior can be adapted to something else.

非建设性或破坏性的社会或个人行为有时可以用来实现建设性的结果。例如，一种持续不断的重复行为可以被重新集中到某个创造或构建某个东西的事物上。换句话说，这种行为可以适应其他的事物。


In contrast, maladaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is often used to reduce one's anxiety, but the result is dysfunctional and non-productive. For example, avoiding situations because you have unrealistic fears may initially reduce your anxiety, but it is non-productive in alleviating the actual problem in the long term. Maladaptive behavior is frequently used as an indicator of abnormality or mental dysfunction, since its assessment is relatively free from subjectivity. However, many behaviors considered moral can be maladaptive, such as dissent or abstinence.

In contrast, maladaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is often used to reduce one's anxiety, but the result is dysfunctional and non-productive. For example, avoiding situations because you have unrealistic fears may initially reduce your anxiety, but it is non-productive in alleviating the actual problem in the long term. Maladaptive behavior is frequently used as an indicator of abnormality or mental dysfunction, since its assessment is relatively free from subjectivity. However, many behaviors considered moral can be maladaptive, such as dissent or abstinence.

相比之下，适应不良的行为是一种经常被用来减轻焦虑的行为，但其结果是功能失调和没有生产力。例如，因为你有不切实际的恐惧而回避某些情况可能会在一开始减少你的焦虑，但是从长远来看，这对缓解实际问题是没有效果的。适应不良的行为经常被用来作为异常或心理功能障碍的指标，因为它的评估相对来说没有主观性质。然而，许多被认为是道德的行为可能是适应不良的，如异议或禁欲。


Adaptive behavior reflects an individual’s social and practical competence to meet the demands of everyday living. Behavior patterns change throughout a person's development, across life settings and social constructs, changes in personal values, and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behavior in order to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially and educationally.

Adaptive behavior reflects an individual’s social and practical competence to meet the demands of everyday living. Behavior patterns change throughout a person's development, across life settings and social constructs, changes in personal values, and the expectations of others. It is important to assess adaptive behavior in order to determine how well an individual functions in daily life: vocationally, socially and educationally.

适应行为反映了个体满足日常生活需求的社会能力和实践能力。行为模式会随着一个人的发展、生活环境和社会结构、个人价值观和他人期望的改变而改变。为了确定一个人在日常生活中的职业、社会和教育方面是否运转良好，评估适应行为是很重要的。


Examples

例子

  • A child born with cerebral palsy will most likely have a form of hemiparesis or hemiplegia (the weakening, or loss of use, of one side of the body). In order to adapt to one's environment, the child may use these limbs as helpers, in some cases even adapt the use of their mouth and teeth as a tool used for more than just eating or conversation.

一个出生时患有脑瘫的孩子很可能会有一种偏瘫或半身麻痹（身体一侧功能减弱或丧失使用能力）。为了适应环境，孩子可能会使用这些肢体作为助手，在某些情况下，他们甚至会将他们的嘴和牙齿作为一种工具来使用，而不仅仅是吃饭或聊天

  • Frustration from lack of the ability to verbalize one's own needs can lead to tantrums. In addition, it may lead to the use of signs or sign language to communicate one's desires.

由于缺乏表达自己需求的能力而产生的挫败感会导致发脾气。此外，它可能会导致一个人使用符号或手语来传达愿望。


Core problems

核心问题 Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene.[1] Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.[1]

Limitations in self-care skills and social relationships, as well as behavioral excesses are common characteristics of individuals with mental disabilities. Individuals with mental disabilities who require extensive supports are often taught basic self care skills such as dressing, eating, and hygiene. Direct instruction and environmental supports, such as added prompts and simplified routines are necessary to ensure that deficits in these adaptive areas do not come to seriously limit one's quality of life.

自我照顾技能和社会关系的局限，以及行为过激是精神残疾者的共同特征。需要大量扶持的精神障碍患者通常被教授基本的自我照顾技能，如穿衣、饮食和卫生。直接教学法和环境支持，例如增加提示和简化常规是必要的，它们能确保这些适应性区域的缺陷不会严重限制一个人的生活质量。


Most children with milder forms of mental disabilities learn how to take care of their basic needs, but they often require training in self-management skills to achieve the levels of performance necessary for eventual independent living. Making and sustaining friendships and personal relationships present significant challenges for many persons with mental disabilities. Limited cognitive processing skills, poor language development, and unusual or inappropriate behaviors can seriously impede interacting with others. Teaching students with mental disabilities appropriate social and interpersonal skills is one of the most important functions of special education. Students with mental disabilities more often exhibit behavior problems than children without disabilities.[1] Some of the behaviors observed by students with mental disabilities are difficulties accepting criticism, limited self-control, and inappropriate behaviors. The greater the severity of the mental disabilities, generally the higher the incidence of behavioral problems.[1]

Most children with milder forms of mental disabilities learn how to take care of their basic needs, but they often require training in self-management skills to achieve the levels of performance necessary for eventual independent living. Making and sustaining friendships and personal relationships present significant challenges for many persons with mental disabilities. Limited cognitive processing skills, poor language development, and unusual or inappropriate behaviors can seriously impede interacting with others. Teaching students with mental disabilities appropriate social and interpersonal skills is one of the most important functions of special education. Students with mental disabilities more often exhibit behavior problems than children without disabilities. Some of the behaviors observed by students with mental disabilities are difficulties accepting criticism, limited self-control, and inappropriate behaviors. The greater the severity of the mental disabilities, generally the higher the incidence of behavioral problems.

大多数患有轻度精神残疾的儿童学会了如何照顾自己的基本需要，但他们往往需要接受自我管理技能培训来达到最终独立生活所必需的独立水平。建立和维持友谊和人际关系对许多精神残疾者来说是一项重大挑战。有限的认知处理技能，糟糕的语言发展，以及不寻常或不恰当的行为会严重阻碍与他人的互动。教授智障学生适当的社交和人际技能是特殊教育最重要的功能之一。智力残疾的学生比非智力残疾的学生更容易出现行为问题。心理障碍学生的一些行为表现为难以接受批评、自我控制能力有限和行为不当。精神残疾的严重程度越高，行为问题的发生率就越高。


Adaptive behaviors in education

教育中的 适应行为 In education, adaptive behavior is defined as that which (1) meets the needs of the community of stakeholders (parents, teachers, peers, and later employers) and (2) meets the needs of the learner, now and in the future. Specifically, these behaviors include such things as effective speech, self-help, using money, cooking, and reading, for example.

In education, adaptive behavior is defined as that which (1) meets the needs of the community of stakeholders (parents, teachers, peers, and later employers) and (2) meets the needs of the learner, now and in the future. Specifically, these behaviors include such things as effective speech, self-help, using money, cooking, and reading, for example.

在教育中，适应行为的定义是: (1)满足利益相关者(父母、教师、同龄人和之后的雇主)的需要，(2)满足学习者现在和未来的需要。具体来说，这些行为包括诸如有效的演讲、自我帮助、金钱使用、烹饪和阅读等。


Training in adaptive behavior is a key component of any educational program, but is critically important for children with special needs. The US Department of Education has allocated billions of dollars ($12.3 billion in 2008) for Special Education programs aimed at improving educational and early intervention outcomes for children with disabilities.

Training in adaptive behavior is a key component of any educational program, but is critically important for children with special needs. The US Department of Education has allocated billions of dollars ($12.3 billion in 2008) for Special Education programs aimed at improving educational and early intervention outcomes for children with disabilities.

适应行为训练是任何教育计划的一个关键组成部分，但对于有特殊需要的儿童更为至关重要。美国教育部已经拨款数十亿美元(2008年为123亿美元)用于特殊教育项目，旨在改善残疾儿童的教育和早期干预成果。

In 2001, the United States National Research Council published a comprehensive review of interventions for children and adults diagnosed with autism. The review indicates that interventions based on applied behavior analysis have been effective with these groups.

In 2001, the United States National Research Council published a comprehensive review of interventions for children and adults diagnosed with autism. The review indicates that interventions based on applied behavior analysis have been effective with these groups.

2001年，美国国家研究委员会发表了一份对诊断为自闭症的儿童和成人干预措施的综合评论。综述表明，基于应用行为分析的干预措施对这些群体是有效的。


Adaptive behavior includes socially responsible and independent performance of daily activities. However, the specific activities and skills needed may differ from setting to setting. When a student is going to school, school and academic skills are adaptive. However, some of those same skills might be useless or maladaptive in a job settings, so the transition between school and job needs careful attention.

Adaptive behavior includes socially responsible and independent performance of daily activities. However, the specific activities and skills needed may differ from setting to setting. When a student is going to school, school and academic skills are adaptive. However, some of those same skills might be useless or maladaptive in a job settings, so the transition between school and job needs careful attention.

适应行为包括社会责任和日常活动的独立表现。然而，具体所需要的的活动和技能可能会根据不同背景改变。当学生上学时，学校和学术技能是适应性的。然而，这些技能中的一些在工作环境中可能是无用的或适应不良的，所以学校和工作之间的过渡需要仔细的注意。

Specific skills

特殊技能 Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group.[1] Specific skills include:

Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group. Specific skills include:

适应行为是指人们在日常生活中独立生活、安全适当地发挥作用所必需的与年龄相适应的行为。适应性行为包括生活技能，如梳洗、穿衣、安全、食物处理、工作、理财、清洁、交朋友、社交技能，以及根据他们的年龄和社会群体应承担的个人责任。具体技能包括:


  • Community access skills

社区使用技巧

  1. Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)[2]
Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)

公共汽车乘坐(尼夫等，1978)

  1. Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)[3]
Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)

独立行走(格鲁伯等，1979)

  1. Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)[4]
Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)

加总硬币(劳和科沃，1976年; 米勒等，1977)

  1. Ordering food in a restaurant (Haring 1987)
Ordering food in a restaurant (Haring 1987)

在餐厅点餐(Haring 1987)

  1. Vending machine use (Sprague and Horner, 1984)
Vending machine use (Sprague and Horner, 1984)

自动售货机的使用(斯普雷格和霍纳，1984年)

  1. Eating in public places (van den Pol at al. 1981)[5]
Eating in public places (van den Pol at al. 1981)

在公共场所进食(文登坡等，1981)

  1. Pedestrian safety (Page et al. 1976)
Pedestrian safety (Page et al. 1976)

行人安全（佩吉等，1976）


  • Peer access and retention

同龄人交流和保留

  1. Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)[6]
Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)

服装选择技巧(纳特和瑞德，1978)

  1. Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)[7][8][9]
Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)

适当的进餐时间行为(麦克克里斯等，2004; 欧比伦等，1972; 威尔森等，1984)

  1. Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)[10][11]
Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)

玩具游戏技巧(哈灵，1985)和好玩的活动(里伏特等，1993年)

  1. Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)[12][13]
Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)

口腔卫生和刷牙(辛格等，1982; 霍纳和科里兹，1975)

  1. Soccer play (Luyben et al. 1986)

踢足球（鲁本等，1986） 

Soccer play (Luyben et al. 1986)

Soccer play (Luyben et al.1986)

Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.[14]

Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.

适应行为被认为是由于人的文化和环境的变化而产生的。教授们必须深入研究学生的技术和理解技能，以衡量他们的行为是如何适应的。


  • Barriers to access to peers and communities

与同龄人和社会的障碍

  1. Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al. 1982)[15]
Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al. 1982)

日间磨牙（布朗特等，1982） 

Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al.1982)
  1. Controlling rumination and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)[16][17]
Controlling rumination and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)

控制反刍和呕吐(诺伦伯格，1970; 拉斯特等，1981)

  1. Pica (Mace and Knight, 1986)
Pica (Mace and Knight, 1986)

异食癖(梅斯和奈特，1986)


Adaptive skills

适应技能 Every human being must learn a set of skills that is beneficial for the environments and communities they live in. Adaptive skills are stepping stones toward accessing and benefiting from local or remote communities. This means that, in urban environments, to go to the movies, a child will have to learn to navigate through the town or take the bus, read the movie schedule, and pay for the movie. Adaptive skills allow for safer exploration because they provide the learner with an increased awareness of his/her surroundings and of changes in context, that require new adaptive responses to meet the demands and dangers of that new context. Adaptive skills may generate more opportunities to engage in meaningful social interactions and acceptance. Adaptive skills are socially acceptable and desirable at any age and regardless of gender (with the exception of gender specific biological differences such as menstrual care skills, etc.)

Every human being must learn a set of skills that is beneficial for the environments and communities they live in. Adaptive skills are stepping stones toward accessing and benefiting from local or remote communities. This means that, in urban environments, to go to the movies, a child will have to learn to navigate through the town or take the bus, read the movie schedule, and pay for the movie. Adaptive skills allow for safer exploration because they provide the learner with an increased awareness of his/her surroundings and of changes in context, that require new adaptive responses to meet the demands and dangers of that new context. Adaptive skills may generate more opportunities to engage in meaningful social interactions and acceptance. Adaptive skills are socially acceptable and desirable at any age and regardless of gender (with the exception of gender specific biological differences such as menstrual care skills, etc.)

每个人都必须学习一套对他们所生活的环境和社区有益的技能。适应技能是得到认同和受益于当地或偏远社区的垫脚石。这意味着，在城市环境中，要想去看电影，孩子们必须学会在城市中导航，或者乘坐公交车，阅读电影时间表，并且为电影付费。适应性技能使学习者能够进行更安全的探索，因为它们使学习者更加了解他/她的环境及其变化，这需要新的适应性反应来满足新环境的要求和危险。适应技能可以创造更多的机会参与有意义的社会互动和认同。适应性技能在任何年龄和性别都是可以被社会接受和需要的(除了性别特有的生理差异，如月经护理技能等)


Learning adaptive skills

学习适应技能 Adaptive skills encompass a range of daily situations and they usually start with a task analysis. The task analysis will reveal all the steps necessary to perform the task in the natural environment. The use of behavior analytic procedures has been documented, with children, adolescents and adults, under the guidance of behavior analysts[18] and supervised behavioral technicians. The list of applications has a broad scope and it is in continuous expansion as more research is carried out in applied behavior analysis (see Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior).

Adaptive skills encompass a range of daily situations and they usually start with a task analysis. The task analysis will reveal all the steps necessary to perform the task in the natural environment. The use of behavior analytic procedures has been documented, with children, adolescents and adults, under the guidance of behavior analysts and supervised behavioral technicians. The list of applications has a broad scope and it is in continuous expansion as more research is carried out in applied behavior analysis (see Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior).

适应技能包括一系列的日常情况，并且通常从任务分析开始。任务分析将揭示在自然环境中执行任务所需的所有步骤。在行为分析师和监督行为技术员的指导下，行为分析程序的使用已经被记录在案，包括儿童，青少年和成年人。任务分析的应用范围很广，而且随着应用行为分析研究的不断深入，其应用范围仍在不断扩大。


Practopoietic theory

拓扑理论 According to practopoietic theory,[19] creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

According to practopoietic theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.

根据 拓扑理论，适应行为的产生涉及到系统组织不同层次之间的特殊的、极性的相互作用。这些相互作用描述的基础上控制论理论，特别是良好的调节定理。在拓扑系统中，较低层次的组织决定了较高层次组织的性质，而不是相反。这确保了较低层次的组织(例如，基因)总是比较高层次的组织拥有更多的控制论上的一般知识——较高层次的知识是较低层次知识的特例。在组织的最高层次存在着明显的行为。认知操作位于这种等级制度的中间部分，高于基因，低于行为。为了使行为具有适应性，我们至少需要三个适应性遍历。


See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 William Heward: Exceptional Children 2005
  2. ↑ Neef, A.N.; Iwata, B.A.; Page T.J. et al. (1978). Public Transportation Skills. In vivo versus classroom instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 331–4.
  3. ↑ Gruber, B.; Reeser R.; Reid, D.H. (1979). Providing a less restrictive environment to retarded persons by teaching independent walking skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 285–97.
  4. ↑ Lowe, M.L. & Cuvo, A.J. (1976). Teaching coin summation to the mentally retarded. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 483–9.
  5. ↑ Van den Pol, R.A.; Iwata, B.A.; Ivancic M.T.; Page, T.J.; Neef N.A. & Whitley (1981). Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of restaurant skills. JABA. 14, 61–9.
  6. ↑ Nutter D. & Reid D.H. (1978). Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 475–87.
  7. ↑ McGrath, A.; Bosch, S.; Sullivan, C.; Fuqua, R.W. (2003). Teaching reciprocal social interactions between preschoolers and a child diagnosed with autism. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 5, 47–54.
  8. ↑ O'Brien, F.; Bugle, C. & Azrin N.H. (1972). Training and maintaining a retarded child's proper eating. JABA, 5, 67–72.
  9. ↑ Wilson, P.G.; Reid, D.H.; Phillips, J.F. & Burgio, L.D. (1984). Normalization of institutional mealtimes for profoundly retarded persons. Effects and non-effects of teaching family-style dining. JABA, 17, 189–201.
  10. ↑ Haring, T.G. (1985). Teaching between class generalization of toy play behavior to handicapped children. JABA, 18, 127–39.
  11. ↑ Lifter, K.; Sulzer-Azaroff, B.; Anderson, S.R. & Cowdery, G.E. (1993) Teaching Play Activities to Preschool Children with Disabilities: The Importance of Developmental Considerations. Journal of Early Intervention, 17, 139–59.
  12. ↑ Singh, N.N.; Manning, P.J. & Angell M.J. (1982). Effects of an oral hyegene punishment procedure on chronic rumination and collateral behaviors in monozygous twins. JABA, 15, 309–14.
  13. ↑ Horner, R.D. & Keilitz, I. (1975). Training mentally retarded adolescents to brush their teeth. JABA, 8, 301–9.
  14. ↑ "Psychology: Adaptive Behavior". Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2011.
  15. ↑ Blount, R.L.; Drabman, R.S.; Wilson, N.; Stewart D. (1982). Reducing severe diurnal bruxism ib tw profoundly retarded females. JABA, 15, 565–71.
  16. ↑ Kholenberg (1970). Punishment of persitent vomiting: A case study. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 241–5.
  17. ↑ Rast, J.; Johnston, J.M.; Drum, C. & Corin, J. (1981). The relation of food quantity to rumination behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 121–30.
  18. ↑ Professional practice of behavior analysis
  19. ↑ Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]". Retrieved 2014-06-06.


External links

Category:Behavior

分类: 行为

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类别: 发展心理学

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类别: 行为概念

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类别: 进化心理学

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范畴: 教育哲学


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