“系统生态学”的版本间的差异
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Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact. | Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact. | ||
| − | + | 生态系统生态学是生态系统的'''<font color="#ff8000">生物 Biotic</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">非生物 abiotic</font>'''组成部分及其在生态系统框架内的相互作用的综合研究。它主要研究生态系统是如何工作的，并将其与'''<font color="#ff8000">化学物质 Chemical</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">基岩 Bedrock</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">土壤 Soil</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">植物 Plant</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">动物 Animal</font>'''等组成部分联系起来。生态系统生态学研究物理和生物结构以及这些生态系统特征是如何相互作用的。 | |
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The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems. | The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems. | ||
| − | + | 系统生态学和生态系统生态学之间的关系是复杂的。许多系统生态学可以被认为是生态系统生态学的一个子集。生态系统生态学也使用了一些与系统生态学的整体方法无关的方法。然而，系统生态学更积极地考虑外部影响，比如经济学，它通常超出了生态系统生态学的范围。然而生态系统生态学可以被定义为生态系统的科学研究，系统生态学更多采用一种特殊的方法来研究生态系统和与这些系统相互作用的现象。 | |
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Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes. | Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes. | ||
| − | + | 工业生态学是研究'''<font color="#ff8000">工业过程 Industrial process</font>'''作为线性(开放式循环)系统，其中资源和资本投资的流动通过该系统变成废料，进入一个封闭式循环系统，废料便成为新一次过程的投入。 | |
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| − | * [[Agroecology]] | + | * [[Agroecology]] 农业生态学 |
| − | * [[Earth system science]] | + | * [[Earth system science]] 地球系统科学 |
| − | * [[Ecosystem ecology]] | + | * [[Ecosystem ecology]] 生态系统生态学 |
| − | * [[Ecological literacy]] | + | * [[Ecological literacy]] 生态素养 |
| − | * [[Emergy]] | + | * [[Emergy]] 能值 |
| − | * [[Energetics]] | + | * [[Energetics]] 能量学 |
| − | * [[Energy Systems Language]] | + | * [[Energy Systems Language]] 能源系统语言 |
| − | * [[Holism in science]] | + | * [[Holism in science]] 科学中的整体论 |
| − | * [[Holon (philosophy)]] | + | * [[Holon (philosophy)]] 整体单元（哲学） |
| − | * [[Holistic management]] | + | * [[Holistic management]] 整体管理 |
| − | * [[Landscape ecology]] | + | * [[Landscape ecology]] 景观生态学 |
| − | * [[Antireductionism]] | + | * [[Antireductionism]] 反还原论 |
| − | * [[Biosemiotics]] | + | * [[Biosemiotics]] 生物符号学 |
| − | * [[Ecosemiotics]] | + | * [[Ecosemiotics]] 生态符号学 |
| − | * [[MuSIASEM]] | + | * [[MuSIASEM]] 社会生态系统代谢多尺度综合评估 |
2020年10月4日 (日) 17:11的版本
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Ecological analysis of CO2 in an ecosystem
生态系统 Ecosystem中CO2的生态学分析
Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems.[1][2][3] Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.
Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.
系统生态学 Systems ecology是一个跨学科的 Interdisciplinary 生态学 Ecology领域，是地球系统科学 Earth system science的一个子集，它采用整体的方法研究生态学中的系统，尤其是生态系统。系统生态学可以看作是一般系统理论 General system theroy在生态学中的应用。系统生态学方法的核心思想是，生态系统是一个具有突显特性 Emergent properties的复杂系统。系统生态学侧重于生物的系统和生态的系统内部，以及它们之间的相互作用和交换，尤其关注人类干预对生态系统功能的影响。它使用并扩展了热力学 Thermodynamics的概念，同时开发了其他复杂系统的宏观描述。
Overview
Overview
概览
Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:[4]
Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:
系统生态学寻求生物的系统和生态的系统内部，以及它们之间的相互作用和交换的整体的 Holistic观点。系统生态学家意识到，任何生态系统的功能都可以从根本上受到人类经济学的影响。用R.L.Kitching的话来说就是，他们因此采取了额外的跨学科步骤，将经济学纳入生态经济 Ecological-economic系统的考虑。返回文章页面风筝:
- Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying, characterizing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems..
- In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the system's boundaries by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding systems environments, the systems are described as closed. Ecological work, however, deals almost exclusively with open systems.[5]
As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.
As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.
作为一种科学探究方式，系统生态学的一个核心特征就是能量学原理 Principles of energetics在任何尺度的所有系统中的普遍应用。这个观点最著名的支持者是Howard T. Odum，他有时被认为是生态系统生态学之父。在这种方法中，能量学原理构成了生态系统原理 Ecosystem principles。通过从一个系统到另一个系统的形式进行类比推理，系统生态学家可以看到生态系统原理以类似的方式，跨越系统的尺度边界而发挥作用。H.t.Odum 通常将能源系统语言 Energy Systems Language作为制作系统图和流程图的工具。
The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.
The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.
原理中的第四条，最大功率效率原则 Principle of maximum power efficiency，在生态系统的分析和综合体中占据中心地位。第四个原则认为，当环境负荷与系统内部阻力相匹配时，系统功能将发生于进化最有利的改变。环境负荷与内阻的匹配越小，系统离可持续稳定状态越远。因此，系统生态学家像电子工程师 electronic engineer一样，在生态工程中从事匹配电阻和阻抗的任务。
密切相关的领域
Deep ecology
Deep ecology
深层生态学
Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, Gandhian scholar, and environmental activist. He argues that the prevailing approach to environmental management is anthropocentric, and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine."[6] Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.
Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, Gandhian scholar, and environmental activist. He argues that the prevailing approach to environmental management is anthropocentric, and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine." Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.
深层生态学是一种与生态学密切相关的形而上学的基础意识形态。这个术语是由挪威哲学家、甘地学者和环境活动家 Environmental activistArne Naess创造的。他认为，目前流行的环境管理 Environmental management方法是人本位的 Anthropocentric，自然环境不仅是要“比我们想象的更复杂，而是比我们能想象到的更复杂”Naess 于1973年在布达佩斯的一次环境会议上提出了深层生态学的概念。
Joanna Macy, John Seed, and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called experiential deep ecology. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "ecological self", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend altruism with a deeper self-interest based on biospherical equality beyond human chauvinism.
Joanna Macy, John Seed, and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called experiential deep ecology. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "ecological self", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend altruism with a deeper self-interest based on biospherical equality beyond human chauvinism.
Joanna Macy、John Seed和其他人将Naess的论点发展成他们称为经验性深层生态学的一个分支。他们之所以作出这些努力，是因为他们认为需要发展”生态自我” ，将人的自我视为包括个人在内的生命系统的一个组成部分。他们试图超越利他主义 Altruism，以超越人类沙文主义的生物学的平等 Biospherical equality为基础，实现更深层次的自我利益。
Earth systems engineering and management
Earth systems engineering and management
地球系统工程与管理
Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"
Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"
地球系统工程与管理(ESEM)是一门用于分析、设计、工程和管理复杂环境系统 Complex environmental systems的学科。它广泛涉及多个学科领域，包括人类学、工程学、环境科学 Environmental science、伦理学和哲学。ESEM 的核心是“以具有高度整合性并且道德的方式，合理地设计并管理人与自然的耦合系统”
Ecological economics
Ecological economics
生态经济学
Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in economics and ecology. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource economics.
Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in economics and ecology. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource economics.
生态经济学是学术研究中，研究人类经济和自然生态系统 Ecosystem之间动态和空间相互依存关系的一个跨学科领域。生态经济学把不同学科联系在一起，尤其是在自然科学和社会科学这些广泛的领域之间。顾名思义，这个领域会由具有经济学 Economics和生态学 Ecology相关背景的研究人员组成。生态经济学产生的一个重要动因是对传统(主流)环境资源经济学 Environmental and resource economics的假设和方法的批判。
Ecological energetics
Ecological energetics
生态能量学
Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the principles which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the principles of energetics.
Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the principles which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the principles of energetics.
生态能量学是对生态系统中能量流动的定量研究。它旨在揭示描述这种能量流通过营养或生态网络时的能量利用水平的倾向的原理 Principles。在系统生态学中，生态系统能量流动原理或“生态系统规律”(即:生态能量学原理)被认为在形式上类似于能量学原理 Principles of energetics。
Ecological humanities
Ecological humanities
生态人文学科
Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between Western, Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.
Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between Western, Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.
生态人文旨在弥合科学与人文之间的鸿沟，弥合西方、东方和本土 Indigenous对自然的认识方式。就像生态中心的政治理论一样，生态人文学科的特点是连接本体论和对两个基本公理的承诺，即必须服从生态法则，并将人类视为更大的生命系统的一部分。
Ecosystem ecology
Ecosystem ecology
生态系统生态学
A riparian forest in the White Mountains, New Hampshire (USA)
[[新罕布什尔州怀特山脉的河岸森林]
Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.
Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.
生态系统生态学是生态系统的生物 Biotic和非生物 abiotic组成部分及其在生态系统框架内的相互作用的综合研究。它主要研究生态系统是如何工作的，并将其与化学物质 Chemical、基岩 Bedrock、土壤 Soil、植物 Plant和动物 Animal等组成部分联系起来。生态系统生态学研究物理和生物结构以及这些生态系统特征是如何相互作用的。
The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.
The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.
系统生态学和生态系统生态学之间的关系是复杂的。许多系统生态学可以被认为是生态系统生态学的一个子集。生态系统生态学也使用了一些与系统生态学的整体方法无关的方法。然而，系统生态学更积极地考虑外部影响，比如经济学，它通常超出了生态系统生态学的范围。然而生态系统生态学可以被定义为生态系统的科学研究，系统生态学更多采用一种特殊的方法来研究生态系统和与这些系统相互作用的现象。
Industrial ecology
Industrial ecology
工业生态学
Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.
Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.
工业生态学是研究工业过程 Industrial process作为线性(开放式循环)系统，其中资源和资本投资的流动通过该系统变成废料，进入一个封闭式循环系统，废料便成为新一次过程的投入。
See also
See also
参见
- Agroecology 农业生态学
- Earth system science 地球系统科学
- Ecosystem ecology 生态系统生态学
- Ecological literacy 生态素养
- Emergy 能值
- Energetics 能量学
- Energy Systems Language 能源系统语言
- Holism in science 科学中的整体论
- Holon (philosophy) 整体单元（哲学）
- Holistic management 整体管理
- Landscape ecology 景观生态学
- Antireductionism 反还原论
- Biosemiotics 生物符号学
- Ecosemiotics 生态符号学
- MuSIASEM 社会生态系统代谢多尺度综合评估
References
References
参考资料
- ↑ Shugart, Herman H. (Herman Henry), 1944-; O'Neill, R. V. (Robert V.), 1940-. Systems ecology. ISBN 0-87933-347-2. OCLC 4664585.
- ↑ Van Dyne, George M., 1932- (1966). Ecosystems, systems ecology, and systems ecologists.. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Health Physics Divisions. OCLC 4247138.
- ↑ Wilkinson, David M., 1963- (2006). Fundamental processes in ecology : an earth systems approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856846-0. OCLC 67383832.
- ↑ Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945- (1983). Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling. University of Queensland Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-7022-1813-8. OCLC 8845946.
- ↑ Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945- (1983). Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling. University of Queensland Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-7022-1813-8. OCLC 8845946.
- ↑ A statement attributed to British biologist J.B.S. Haldane
Literature
Literature
文学
- Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, 2000.
- Kenneth Edmund Ferguson, Systems Analysis in Ecology, WATT, 1966, 276 pp.
- Efraim Halfon, Theoretical Systems Ecology: Advances and Case Studies, 1979.
- J. W. Haefner, Modeling Biological Systems: Principles and Applications, London., UK, Chapman and Hall 1996, 473 pp.
- Richard F Johnston, Peter W Frank, Charles Duncan Michener, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1976, 307 pp.
- Jorgensen, Sven E., "Introduction to Systems Ecology", CRC Press, 2012.
- R.L. Kitching, Systems ecology, University of Queensland Press, 1983.
- Howard T. Odum, Systems Ecology: An Introduction, Wiley-Interscience, 1983.
- Howard T. Odum, Ecological and General Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology. University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO, 1994.
- Friedrich Recknagel, Applied Systems Ecology: Approach and Case Studies in Aquatic Ecology, 1989.
- James. Sanderson & Larry D. Harris, Landscape Ecology: A Top-down Approach, 2000, 246 pp.
- Sheldon Smith, Human Systems Ecology: Studies in the Integration of Political Economy, 1989.
- Shugart, H.H., O’Neil, R.V. (Eds.) Systems Ecology, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979.
- Van Dyne, George M., Ecosystems, Systems Ecology, and Systems Ecologists, ORNL- 3975. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, pp. 1–40, 1966.
- Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 1, Academic Press, 1971.
- Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 2, Academic Press, 1972.
- Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 3, Academic Press, 1975.
- Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 4, Academic Press, 1976.
External links
External links
外部链接
- Organisations
Organisations
机构
- Systems Ecology Department at the Stockholm University.
- Systems Ecology Department at the University of Amsterdam.
- Systems ecology Lab at SUNY-ESF.
- Systems Ecology program at the University of Florida
- Systems Ecology program at the University of Montana
- Terrestrial Systems Ecology of ETH Zürich.
模板:Environmental social science
Category:Environmental science
类别: 环境科学
Category:Environmental social science
类别: 环境社会科学
Category:Formal sciences
类别: 正规科学
Ecology
生态学
Category:Subfields of ecology
分类: 生态学的子领域
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