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此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共650，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。
  
 
{{For|the album by Off Minor|The Heat Death of the Universe}}
 
{{For|the album by Off Minor|The Heat Death of the Universe}}
  
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{{short description|A possible end of the universe}}
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{{article issues|
  
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{{Physical cosmology|expansion}}
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{{Over-quotation|date=September 2020}}
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{{Original research|date=September 2020}}
  
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The '''heat death of the universe''', also known as the '''Big Chill''' or '''Big Freeze''',<ref>[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_fate.html WMAP – Fate of the Universe], ''WMAP's Universe'', [[NASA]]. Accessed online July 17, 2008.</ref> is a [[conjecture]] on the [[ultimate fate of the universe]], which suggests the [[universe]] would evolve to a state of no [[thermodynamic free energy]] and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase [[entropy]]. Heat death does not imply any particular [[Thermodynamic temperature#Internal energy at absolute zero|absolute temperature]]; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform [[work (thermodynamics)|work]]. In the language of [[physics]], this is when the universe reaches [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] (maximum entropy).
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The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze, is a conjecture on the ultimate fate of the universe, which suggests the universe would evolve to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase entropy. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work. In the language of physics, this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy).
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{{short description|Possible end of the universe}}
  
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宇宙的热死亡，也被称为大寒或大冻结，是对宇宙最终命运的猜测，这表明宇宙将进化到没有热力学自由能的状态，因此将无法维持增加熵的过程。热死并不意味着任何特定的绝对温度; 它只是要求温差或其他过程可能不再利用进行工作。用物理学的语言来说，这是宇宙达到最大熵的热力学平衡。
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{{Physical cosmology|expansion}}
  
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The '''heat death of the universe''', also known as the '''Big Chill''' or '''Big Freeze''',<ref>[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_fate.html WMAP – Fate of the Universe], ''WMAP's Universe'', [[NASA]]. Accessed online July 17, 2008.</ref> is a [[conjecture]] on the [[ultimate fate of the universe]], which suggests the [[universe]] would evolve to a state of no [[thermodynamic free energy]] and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase [[entropy]]. Heat death does not imply any particular [[Thermodynamic temperature#Internal energy at absolute zero|absolute temperature]]; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform [[work (thermodynamics)|work]]. In the language of [[physics]], this is when the universe reaches [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] (maximum entropy).
  
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The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze, If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.<sup>:§VIA</sup> With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.<sup>:§VE</sup> It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.<sup>:§VID</sup> Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly <math>10^{10^{10^{56}}}</math> years. Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy decrease would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and fluctuation theorem. Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable". Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.
  
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If the topology of the universe is [[Big Freeze|open or flat]], or if [[dark energy]] is a positive [[cosmological constant]] (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur,<ref name="DftS">
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宇宙的热死，也被称为大寒或大冻---- 如果宇宙学常数为零，宇宙将在很长一段时间内接近绝对零度。然而，如果宇宙学常数是正的，就像最近观测到的那样，温度将渐近到一个非零的正值，宇宙将接近一个最大熵的状态，在这种状态下不可能做进一步的工作。由于只剩下非常分散的物质，宇宙中的活动将急剧减弱，能量水平极低，时间尺度极长。推测地说，宇宙可能会进入第二个暴胀时期，或者假设当前的真空状态是假真空，真空可能会衰变为低能状态。也有可能产生熵将停止，宇宙将达到热死。另一个宇宙可能是由随机的量子涨落或量子穿隧效应在大约10 ^ {10 ^ {56}} </math > 年内创造出来的。在大量的时间里，自发的熵减少最终会通过庞加莱始态复现定理、热涨落和涨落定理发生。然而，这种情况被描述为“高度投机，可能是错误的，并且完全不可测试”。最初支持这一观点的肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔不再支持这一观点。
  
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If the topology of the universe is open or flat, or if dark energy is a positive cosmological constant (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur,<ref name="DftS">
 
  
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如果宇宙的拓扑结构是开放的或者是平坦的，或者暗能量是一个正宇宙学常数(两者都与当前的数据一致) ，宇宙将永远地膨胀下去，预计会发生热死，ref name"dfts"
 
  
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{{Cite book
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If the [[topology]] of the universe is [[Big Freeze|open or flat]], or if [[dark energy]] is a positive [[cosmological constant]] (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur,<ref name="DftS">
  
 
{{Cite book
 
{{Cite book
  
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{引用书
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Max Planck wrote that the phrase "entropy of the universe" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition. More recently, Walter Grandy writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence." According to Tisza: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it." Buchdahl writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system". According to Gallavotti: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state." Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way." In Landsberg's opinion: "The third misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book."
  
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| title            = Death from the Skies!
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马克斯 · 普朗克写道，“宇宙的熵”这个短语没有任何意义，因为它不承认有准确的定义。最近，Walter Grandy 写道: “我们仍然对宇宙的熵知之甚少，我们想知道如何定义一个宇宙及其主要成分的熵，而这些成分在整个存在过程中从未处于平衡状态。”蒂萨说: “如果一个孤立的系统不处于平衡状态，我们就不能把熵和它联系起来。”布赫达尔写道: “宇宙可以被视为一个封闭的热力学系统，这是完全不合理的假设。”。根据 Gallavotti 的说法: “对于失去平衡的系统，没有普遍接受的熵的概念，即使是在定态中。”在讨论一般非平衡态的熵问题时，Lieb 和 Yngvason 表达了他们的观点如下: “尽管大多数物理学家相信存在这样的非平衡熵，但迄今为止已经证明不可能以一种明显令人满意的方式来定义它。”兰兹伯格认为: “第三个误解是，热力学，特别是熵的概念，不需要进一步探究就可以应用于整个宇宙。...这些问题有一定的吸引力，但答案都是推测，超出了本书的范围。”
  
 
| title            = Death from the Skies!
 
| title            = Death from the Skies!
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| 题目: 来自天空的死亡！
 
  
 
| last            = Plait
 
| last            = Plait
  
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| last            = Plait
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A 2010 analysis of entropy states, "The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known", and "gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the observable universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor. Lee Smolin goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems."
  
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最后一条辫子
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2010年对熵状态的分析表明，“一个普通引力场的熵仍然不为人知” ，“引力熵很难量化”。该分析考虑了几个可能的假设，这些假设对于估计来说是必要的，并且表明可观测宇宙的熵比之前想象的要多。这是因为分析得出结论，超大质量黑洞是最大的贡献者。李 · 斯莫林更进一步说: “人们早就知道，引力对于防止宇宙进入热平衡十分重要。引力束缚系统具有负的比热，也就是说，当能量消失时，其组分的速度增加。...这样的系统不会演化到均匀的平衡状态。相反，随着它分解成子系统，它变得越来越结构化和异构化。”
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| first            = Philip
 
  
 
| first            = Philip
 
| first            = Philip
  
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第一个菲利普
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This point of view is also supported by the fact of a recent experimental discovery of a stable non-equilibrium steady state in a relatively simple closed system. It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics.
  
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| publisher        = Viking Adult
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最近在一个相对简单的封闭系统中实验发现了稳定的非平衡稳态，这也支持了这一观点。可以预期的是，一个分裂成子系统的孤立系统不一定会达到热力学平衡并保持非平衡的稳定状态。熵将从一个子系统传递到另一个子系统，但是它的产出将为零，这与热力学第二定律并不矛盾。
  
 
| publisher        = Viking Adult
 
| publisher        = Viking Adult
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出版商: Viking Adult
 
  
 
| isbn            = 978-0-670-01997-7
 
| isbn            = 978-0-670-01997-7
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| isbn            = 978-0-670-01997-7
 
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[国际标准图书馆编号978-0-670-01997-7]
 
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| publication-date = 16 October 2008
 
  
 
| publication-date = 16 October 2008
 
| publication-date = 16 October 2008
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| 出版日期: 2008年10月16日
 
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| pages            = 259
 
  
 
| pages            = 259
 
| pages            = 259
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第259页
 
  
 
| author-link      = Phil Plait
 
| author-link      = Phil Plait
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| author-link      = Phil Plait
 
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| 作者链接 Phil Plait
 
  
 
| title-link      = Death from the Skies!
 
| title-link      = Death from the Skies!
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| title-link      = Death from the Skies!
 
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| 标题链接来自天空的死亡！
 
  
 
| year            = 2008
 
| year            = 2008
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| year            = 2008
 
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2008年
 
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}}</ref> with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.
 
  
 
}}</ref> with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.
 
}}</ref> with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.
  
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宇宙冷却到一个非常低的温度，在一个非常长的时间周期后达到平衡。
 
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The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] (Lord Kelvin), who in the 1850s took the [[theory of heat]] as [[mechanical energy]] loss in nature (as embodied in the first two [[laws of thermodynamics]]) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.
 
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The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (Lord Kelvin), who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature (as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.
 
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热死的假说来源于威廉 · 汤姆森，第一个凯尔文男爵(开尔文勋爵) ，他在19世纪50年代将热理论视为自然界中的机械能损失(正如前两个热力学定律所体现的那样) ，并将其外推到宇宙尺度上的更大过程。
 
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==Origins of the idea==
 
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The idea of heat death stems from the [[second law of thermodynamics]], of which one version states that entropy tends to increase in an [[isolated system]]. From this, the hypothesis implies that if the universe lasts for a sufficient time, it will [[asymptotically]] approach a state where all [[energy]] is evenly distributed. In other words, according to this hypothesis, there is a tendency in nature to the [[dissipation]] (energy transformation) of [[mechanical energy]] (motion) into [[thermal energy]]; hence, by extrapolation, there exists the view that, in time, the mechanical movement of the universe will run down as work is converted to heat because of the second law.
 
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The idea of heat death stems from the second law of thermodynamics, of which one version states that entropy tends to increase in an isolated system. From this, the hypothesis implies that if the universe lasts for a sufficient time, it will asymptotically approach a state where all energy is evenly distributed. In other words, according to this hypothesis, there is a tendency in nature to the dissipation (energy transformation) of mechanical energy (motion) into thermal energy; hence, by extrapolation, there exists the view that, in time, the mechanical movement of the universe will run down as work is converted to heat because of the second law.
 
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热死的概念来源于热力学第二定律，其中一种说法认为，在一个孤立的系统中，熵倾向于增加。由此，该假设暗示，如果宇宙持续足够长的时间，它将渐近地接近所有能量均匀分布的状态。换句话说，根据这一假设，在自然界中存在着将机械能(运动)耗散(能量转换)为热能的趋势; 因此，通过外推，存在着这样一种观点，即随着时间的推移，宇宙的机械运动将减少，因为根据第二定律，功转换为热。
 
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The conjecture that all bodies in the universe cool off, eventually becoming too cold to support life, seems to have been first put forward by the French astronomer [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]] in 1777 in his writings on the history of astronomy and in the ensuing correspondence with [[Voltaire]]. In Bailly's view, all planets have an [[Internal heating|internal heat]] and are now at some particular stage of cooling. [[Jupiter]], for instance, is still too hot for life to arise there for thousands of years, while the [[Moon]] is already too cold. The final state, in this view, is described as one of "equilibrium" in which all motion ceases.<ref>
 
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The conjecture that all bodies in the universe cool off, eventually becoming too cold to support life, seems to have been first put forward by the French astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly in 1777 in his writings on the history of astronomy and in the ensuing correspondence with Voltaire. In Bailly's view, all planets have an internal heat and are now at some particular stage of cooling. Jupiter, for instance, is still too hot for life to arise there for thousands of years, while the Moon is already too cold. The final state, in this view, is described as one of "equilibrium" in which all motion ceases.<ref>
 
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宇宙中的所有物体都会冷却，最终变得太冷以至于无法维持生命，这个猜想似乎最早是由法国天文学家让·西尔万·巴伊于1777年在他关于天文学史的著作中以及随后与伏尔泰的通信中提出的。在贝利看来，所有的行星都有内部热量，现在正处于某个特定的冷却阶段。例如，木星仍然太热，几千年来无法形成生命，而月球已经太冷了。最后的状态，在这个观点中，被描述为一个所有运动停止的“平衡”状态
 
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{{Cite book |title      = A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Nebulous Earth
 
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{{Cite book |title      = A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Nebulous Earth
 
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{引用书名 | 现代行星物理学史: 模糊的地球
 
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|last        = Brush
 
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|last        = Brush
 
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最后的刷子
 
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|first      = Stephen G.
 
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|first      = Stephen G.
 
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首先是史蒂芬 · g。
 
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|author-link = Stephen G. Brush
 
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|author-link = Stephen G. Brush
 
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| 作者链接 Stephen g. Brush
 
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|publisher  = Cambridge University Press
 
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|publisher  = Cambridge University Press
 
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出版商剑桥大学出版社
 
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|year        = 1996
 
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|year        = 1996
 
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1996年
 
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|isbn        = 978-0-521-44171-1
 
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|isbn        = 978-0-521-44171-1
 
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[国际标准图书编号978-0-521-44171-1]
 
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|volume      = 1
 
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第一卷
 
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|page        = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/77 77]
 
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|page        = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/77 77]
 
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[ https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7777]
 
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|url        = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/77
 
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|url        = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/77
 
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Https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/77
 
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The idea of heat death as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics, however, was first proposed in loose terms beginning in 1851 by William Thomson, who theorized further on the mechanical energy loss views of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] (1824), [[James Joule]] (1843), and [[Rudolf Clausius]] (1850). Thomson's views were then elaborated on more definitively over the next decade by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] and [[William Rankine]].{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}
 
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The idea of heat death as a consequence of the laws of thermodynamics, however, was first proposed in loose terms beginning in 1851 by William Thomson, who theorized further on the mechanical energy loss views of Sadi Carnot (1824), James Joule (1843), and Rudolf Clausius (1850). Thomson's views were then elaborated on more definitively over the next decade by Hermann von Helmholtz and William Rankine.
 
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然而，热死作为热力学定律的后果的想法最早是在1851年由 William Thomson 以松散的术语提出的，他对 Sadi Carnot (1824) ，James Joule (1843)和 Rudolf Clausius (1850)的机械能损失观点进行了进一步的理论化。在接下来的十年里，赫尔曼·冯·亥姆霍兹和威廉 · 兰金对汤姆森的观点进行了更加明确的阐述。
 
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===History===
 
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The idea of heat death of the universe derives from discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical [[theory of heat]]: "heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect."<ref>Thomson, Sir William. (1851). [https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_dynamical_theory_of_heat.html "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule’s equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault’s Observations on Steam"] Excerpts. [§§1–14 & §§99–100], ''[[Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]]'', March 1851, and ''[[Philosophical Magazine|Philosophical Magazine IV]]'', 1852. [from ''Mathematical and Physical Papers'', vol. i, art. XLVIII, pp. 174]</ref>
 
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The idea of heat death of the universe derives from discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851, William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat: "heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect."
 
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宇宙热死的概念来源于前两个热力学定律对宇宙过程的应用的讨论。具体地说，在1851年，威廉 · 汤姆森根据最近关于热力学理论的实验概述了这一观点: “热不是一种物质，而是一种机械效应的动力形式，我们认为，在因果关系中，机械功和热之间一定存在等价关系。”
 
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[[Image:Lord Kelvin photograph.jpg|175px|right|thumb|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] originated the idea of universal heat death in 1852.]]
 
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Lord Kelvin originated the idea of universal heat death in 1852.]]
 
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开尔文爵士在1852年提出了宇宙热死的概念
 
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In 1852, Thomson published ''On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy'', in which he outlined the rudiments of the second law of thermodynamics summarized by the view that mechanical motion and the energy used to create that motion will naturally tend to dissipate or run down.<ref>Thomson, Sir William (1852). [https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_a_universal_tendency.html "On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy"] ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]]'' for 19 April 1852, also ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]'', Oct. 1852. [This version from ''Mathematical and Physical Papers'', vol. i, art. 59, pp. 511.]</ref> The ideas in this paper, in relation to their application to the age of the [[Sun]] and the dynamics of the universal operation, attracted the likes of William Rankine and Hermann von Helmholtz. The three of them were said to have exchanged ideas on this subject.<ref name="Energy and Empire">
 
−
 
−
In 1852, Thomson published On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy, in which he outlined the rudiments of the second law of thermodynamics summarized by the view that mechanical motion and the energy used to create that motion will naturally tend to dissipate or run down. The ideas in this paper, in relation to their application to the age of the Sun and the dynamics of the universal operation, attracted the likes of William Rankine and Hermann von Helmholtz. The three of them were said to have exchanged ideas on this subject.<ref name="Energy and Empire">
 
−
 
−
1852年，Thomson 出版了《论自然界中机械能耗散的普遍趋势》一书，其中他概述了热力学第二定律的基本原理，总结为机械运动和用来产生运动的能量会自然地趋于消散或下降的观点。这篇论文中的观点，关于它们在太阳时代和宇宙运行动力学中的应用，吸引了像 William Rankine 和赫尔曼·冯·亥姆霍兹。据说他们三人在这个问题上交换了意见
 
−
 
−
{{Cite book
 
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−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
−
| title        = Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin
 
−
 
−
| title        = Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin
 
−
 
−
能量与帝国: 开尔文勋爵传记研究
 
−
 
−
| last        = Smith
 
−
 
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| last        = Smith
 
−
 
−
最后一个史密斯
 
−
 
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| first        = Crosbie
 
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−
| first        = Crosbie
 
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−
第一个克罗斯比
 
−
 
−
| last2        = Wise
 
−
 
−
| last2        = Wise
 
−
 
−
| last2 Wise
 
−
 
−
| first2      = M. Norton
 
−
 
−
| first2      = M. Norton
 
−
 
−
| first2 m. Norton
 
−
 
−
| publisher    = Cambridge University Press
 
−
 
−
| publisher    = Cambridge University Press
 
−
 
−
出版商剑桥大学出版社
 
−
 
−
| year        = 1989
 
−
 
−
| year        = 1989
 
−
 
−
1989年
 
−
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-521-26173-9
 
−
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-521-26173-9
 
−
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-521-26173-9]
 
−
 
−
| pages        = 500
 
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−
| pages        = 500
 
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−
500页
 
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−
| author-link2 = M. Norton Wise
 
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| author-link2 = M. Norton Wise
 
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−
2 m. Norton Wise
 
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−
}}</ref> In 1862, Thomson published "On the age of the Sun's heat", an article in which he reiterated his fundamental beliefs in the indestructibility of energy (the [[first law of thermodynamics|first law]]) and the universal dissipation of energy (the second law), leading to diffusion of heat, cessation of useful motion ([[work (physics)|work]]), and exhaustion of [[potential energy]] through the material universe, while clarifying his view of the consequences for the universe as a whole. Thomson wrote:
 
−
 
−
}}</ref> In 1862, Thomson published "On the age of the Sun's heat", an article in which he reiterated his fundamental beliefs in the indestructibility of energy (the first law) and the universal dissipation of energy (the second law), leading to diffusion of heat, cessation of useful motion (work), and exhaustion of potential energy through the material universe, while clarifying his view of the consequences for the universe as a whole. Thomson wrote:
 
−
 
−
【参考译文】1862年，汤姆森发表了《论太阳热量的年龄》 ，在这篇文章中，他重申了他的基本信念，即能量不可毁灭(第一定律)和能量的普遍耗散(第二定律) ，导致热量的扩散，有用运动(功)的停止，以及通过物质宇宙的势能耗尽，同时澄清了他对整个宇宙的结果的看法。汤姆森写道:
 
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−
 
−
 
−
<blockquote>The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to an endless progress, through an endless space, of action involving the transformation of [[potential energy]] into [[Work (physics)|palpable motion]] and hence into [[heat]], than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping for ever.<ref>
 
−
 
−
<blockquote>The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death, if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to an endless progress, through an endless space, of action involving the transformation of potential energy into palpable motion and hence into heat, than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping for ever.<ref>
 
−
 
−
如果宇宙是有限的，并且遵循现有的法则，那么结果将不可避免地是宇宙静止和死亡的状态。但是，我们不可能设想宇宙中物质范围的极限; 因此，科学指向的是一个无止境的进步，通过一个无止境的空间，将势能转化为可触知的运动，进而转化为热量，而不是一个单一的有限机制，像时钟一样慢下来，永远停止。 裁判
 
−
 
−
{{Cite magazine
 
−
 
−
{{Cite magazine
 
−
 
−
{ Cite 杂志
 
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| last        = Thomson
 
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| last        = Thomson
 
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−
最后一个汤姆森
 
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| first      = Sir William
 
−
 
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| first      = Sir William
 
−
 
−
先是威廉爵士
 
−
 
−
| date        = 5 March 1862
 
−
 
−
| date        = 5 March 1862
 
−
 
−
1862年3月5日
 
−
 
−
| title      = On the Age of the Sun's Heat
 
−
 
−
| title      = On the Age of the Sun's Heat
 
−
 
−
标题: 太阳热量时代
 
−
 
−
| url        = https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html
 
−
 
−
| url        = https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html
 
−
 
−
Https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html
 
−
 
−
| magazine    = [[Macmillan's Magazine]]
 
−
 
−
| magazine    = Macmillan's Magazine
 
−
 
−
麦克米伦杂志
 
−
 
−
| volume      = 5
 
−
 
−
| volume      = 5
 
−
 
−
第五卷
 
−
 
−
| pages      = 388–93
 
−
 
−
| pages      = 388–93
 
−
 
−
第388-93页
 
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−
}}</ref></blockquote>
 
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−
}}</ref></blockquote>
 
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−
} / ref / blockquote
 
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In the years to follow both Thomson's 1852 and the 1865 papers, Helmholtz and Rankine both credited Thomson with the idea, but read further into his papers by publishing views stating that Thomson argued that the universe will end in a "''heat death''" (Helmholtz) which will be the "''end of all physical phenomena''" (Rankine).<ref name="Energy and Empire" /><ref>
 
−
 
−
In the years to follow both Thomson's 1852 and the 1865 papers, Helmholtz and Rankine both credited Thomson with the idea, but read further into his papers by publishing views stating that Thomson argued that the universe will end in a "heat death" (Helmholtz) which will be the "end of all physical phenomena" (Rankine).<ref>
 
−
 
−
在汤姆森1852年和1865年的论文发表后的几年里，亥姆霍兹和兰金都赞扬了汤姆森的这个想法，但他们对汤姆森的论文进行了进一步的解读，发表了自己的观点，认为汤姆森认为宇宙将以“热死亡”(亥姆霍兹)结束，这将是“所有物理现象的终结”(兰金)。 裁判
 
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−
{{Cite web
 
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−
{{Cite web
 
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−
{引用网页
 
−
 
−
| url          = http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/HISTORIA.HTML
 
−
 
−
| url          = http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/HISTORIA.HTML
 
−
 
−
Http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/historia.html
 
−
 
−
| title        = Physics Chronology
 
−
 
−
| title        = Physics Chronology
 
−
 
−
物理年表
 
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−
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110522124507/http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/HISTORIA.HTML
 
−
 
−
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110522124507/http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/HISTORIA.HTML
 
−
 
−
| 档案-网址 https://web.archive.org/web/20110522124507/http://webplaza.pt.lu/fklaess/html/historia.html
 
−
 
−
| archive-date = 22 May 2011
 
−
 
−
| archive-date = 22 May 2011
 
−
 
−
| 档案-日期2011年5月22日
 
−
 
−
}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2018}}
 
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−
}}</ref>
 
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−
{} / ref
 
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
==Current status==
 
−
 
−
{{see also|Entropy#Cosmology|Entropy (arrow of time)#Cosmology}}
 
−
 
−
Proposals about the final state of the universe depend on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century. In a hypothesized [[Shape of the universe|"open" or "flat" universe]] that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a [[Big Rip]] is expected to eventually occur.<ref name="DftS" /> If the [[cosmological constant]] is zero, the universe will approach [[absolute zero]] temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is [[Cosmological constant#Positive value|positive]], as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further [[Work (thermodynamics)|work]] is possible.<ref>
 
−
 
−
Proposals about the final state of the universe depend on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century. In a hypothesized "open" or "flat" universe that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a Big Rip is expected to eventually occur. If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.<ref>
 
−
 
−
关于宇宙最终状态的提议取决于对宇宙最终命运的假设，而这些假设在20世纪晚期和21世纪早期已经发生了很大变化。在一个假设的“开放”或“平坦”宇宙，继续膨胀无限期，要么热死或大撕裂预计最终发生。如果宇宙学常数为零，宇宙将在很长一段时间内接近绝对零度。然而，如果宇宙学常数是正的，就像最近观测到的那样，温度将渐近到一个非零的正值，宇宙将接近一个最大熵的状态，在这种状态下不可能做进一步的工作。 裁判
 
−
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
−
| last        = Dyson
 
−
 
−
| last        = Dyson
 
−
 
−
戴森
 
−
 
−
| first        = Lisa
 
−
 
−
| first        = Lisa
 
−
 
−
第一个丽莎
 
−
 
−
| author-link  = Lisa Dyson
 
−
 
−
| author-link  = Lisa Dyson
 
−
 
−
作者链接: Lisa Dyson
 
−
 
−
| last2        = Kleban
 
−
 
−
| last2        = Kleban
 
−
 
−
2 Kleban
 
−
 
−
| first2      = Matthew
 
−
 
−
| first2      = Matthew
 
−
 
−
第二名: 马修
 
−
 
−
| author-link2 = Matthew Kleban
 
−
 
−
| author-link2 = Matthew Kleban
 
−
 
−
作者: 马修 · 克莱班
 
−
 
−
| last3        = Susskind
 
−
 
−
| last3        = Susskind
 
−
 
−
3 Susskind
 
−
 
−
| first3      = Leonard
 
−
 
−
| first3      = Leonard
 
−
 
−
| first3 Leonard
 
−
 
−
| author-link3 = Leonard Susskind
 
−
 
−
| author-link3 = Leonard Susskind
 
−
 
−
| 作者-link3李奥纳特·苏士侃
 
−
 
−
| date        = 12 November 2002
 
−
 
−
| date        = 12 November 2002
 
−
 
−
2002年11月12日
 
−
 
−
| title        = Disturbing Implications of a Cosmological Constant
 
−
 
−
| title        = Disturbing Implications of a Cosmological Constant
 
−
 
−
文章标题: 宇宙学常数令人不安的影响
 
−
 
−
| journal      = [[Journal of High Energy Physics]]
 
−
 
−
| journal      = Journal of High Energy Physics
 
−
 
−
高能物理学杂志
 
−
 
−
| volume      = 2002
 
−
 
−
| volume      = 2002
 
−
 
−
2002年
 
−
 
−
| issue        = 10
 
−
 
−
| issue        = 10
 
−
 
−
第10期
 
−
 
−
| pages        = 011
 
−
 
−
| pages        = 011
 
−
 
−
第一季，第11集
 
−
 
−
| doi          = 10.1088/1126-6708/2002/10/011
 
−
 
−
| doi          = 10.1088/1126-6708/2002/10/011
 
−
 
−
10.1088 / 1126-6708 / 2002 / 10 / 011
 
−
 
−
| bibcode        = 2002JHEP...10..011D
 
−
 
−
| bibcode        = 2002JHEP...10..011D
 
−
 
−
| bibcode 2002JHEP... 10. . 011 d
 
−
 
−
| arxiv        = hep-th/0208013
 
−
 
−
| arxiv        = hep-th/0208013
 
−
 
−
Arxiv hep-th / 0208013
 
−
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
If a Big Rip does not happen long before that, the "heat death" situation could be avoided if there is a method or mechanism to regenerate [[hydrogen]] atoms from [[radiation]], [[dark matter]], [[dark energy]], [[zero-point energy]], or other sources. If so, it is at least possible that [[star formation]] and [[heat transfer]] can continue, avoiding a gradual running down of the universe due to the conversion of matter into energy and heavier elements in [[Stellar nucleosynthesis|stellar processes]], and the absorption of matter by [[black hole]]s and their subsequent evaporation as [[Hawking radiation]].<ref>
 
−
 
−
If a Big Rip does not happen long before that, the "heat death" situation could be avoided if there is a method or mechanism to regenerate hydrogen atoms from radiation, dark matter, dark energy, zero-point energy, or other sources. If so, it is at least possible that star formation and heat transfer can continue, avoiding a gradual running down of the universe due to the conversion of matter into energy and heavier elements in stellar processes, and the absorption of matter by black holes and their subsequent evaporation as Hawking radiation.<ref>
 
−
 
−
如果大裂缝不会在那之前很久发生，那么如果有一种方法或机制可以再生来自辐射、暗物质、暗能量、零点能量或其他来源的氢原子，那么“热死”情况就可以避免。如果是这样的话，至少恒星的形成和热量传递可以继续下去，从而避免了在恒星形成过程中由于物质转化为能量和更重的元素，以及黑洞吸收物质并随之蒸发为霍金辐射而导致的宇宙的逐渐减少。 裁判
 
  
−
{{Cite journal
 
  
−
{{Cite journal
+
The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]], who in the 1850s took the [[theory of heat]] as [[mechanical energy]] loss in nature (as embodied in the first two [[laws of thermodynamics]]) and [[Extrapolation|extrapolated]] it to larger processes on a universal scale.
  
−
{引用期刊
 
  
−
| last        = MacMillan
 
  
−
| last        = MacMillan
+
==Concept==
  
−
最后一个麦克米伦
+
The concept of the heat death of the universe is based on the observation that the gravitational potential energy of the universe, also known as [[rest mass]] that is stored mostly in [[baryon]]s, self&#8209;gravitationally shrinks and heats up to ever higher temperatures. Consequently, the ever&#8209;smaller and ever&#8209;hotter baryons "evaporate", with an exponential acceleration, into the seemingly expanding ambient space as photons, so that eventually the universe will consist of zero&#8209;frequency photons:
  
−
| first      = William Duncan
+
<blockquote>
  
−
| first      = William Duncan
+
If the rest mass decreases by Δ''m''<sub>0</sub>, the kinetic energy ''E'' = ''c''<sup>2</sup>Δ''m''<sub>0</sub> is produced. The same thing is true if we replace production of kinetic energy ''E'' by production of radiant energy ''E''. Continuing this line of argument, one can envisage the possibility that the whole rest mass ''m'' of a body could be converted into energy. Then the energy ''E'' = ''m''<sub>0</sub>''c''<sup>2</sup> would be produced and the whole rest mass of the body would disappear.
  
−
首先是威廉 · 邓肯
+
:—[https://dokumen.pub/qdownload/international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-vol-1-nos-6-10.html International Encyclopedia of Unified Science] Vol. 1, nos. 6–10, University of Chicago Press, 1955, p. 460
  
−
| author-link = William Duncan MacMillan
+
</blockquote>
  
−
| author-link = William Duncan MacMillan
+
<blockquote>
  
−
威廉 · 邓肯 · 麦克米伦
+
Although mechanical energy is indestructible, there is a universal tendency to its dissipation, which produces throughout the system a gradual augmentation and diffusion of heat, cessation of motion and '''exhaustion of the potential energy of the material Universe'''.
  
−
| date        = July 1918
+
:—Thomson, William. [http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html On the Age of the Sun’s Heat] ''Macmillan's Magazine'', 5&nbsp;March 1862, pp. 388–93
  
−
| date        = July 1918
+
</blockquote>
  
−
日期: 1918年7月
 
  
−
| title      = On Stellar Evolution
 
  
−
| title      = On Stellar Evolution
+
The exponential acceleration of [[baryon]]s' evaporation has been described by [[Arthur Eddington]]:
  
−
2012年3月15日 | 恆星演化
+
<blockquote>
  
 +
<p>All change is relative. The universe is expanding relatively to our common material standards; our material standards are shrinking relatively to the size of the universe. The theory of the "expanding universe" might also be called the theory of the "shrinking atom". <...></p>
  
 +
<p>Let us then take the whole universe as our standard of constancy, and adopt the view of a cosmic being whose body is composed of intergalactic spaces and swells as they swell. Or rather we must now say it keeps the same size, for he will not admit that it is he who has changed. Watching us for a few thousand million years, he sees us shrinking; atoms, animals, planets, even the galaxies, all shrink alike; only the intergalactic spaces remain the same. The earth spirals round the sun in an ever&#8209;decreasing orbit. It would be absurd to treat its changing revolution as a constant unit of time. The cosmic being will naturally relate his units of length and time so that the velocity of light remains constant. Our years will then decrease in geometrical progression in the cosmic scale of time. On that scale man's life is becoming briefer; his threescore years and ten are an ever&#8209;decreasing allowance. Owing to the property of geometrical progressions an infinite number of our years will add up to a finite cosmic time; so that what we should call the end of eternity is an ordinary finite date in the cosmic calendar. But on that date the universe has expanded to infinity in our reckoning, and we have shrunk to nothing in the reckoning of the cosmic being.</p>
  
−
| journal    = [[The Astrophysical Journal]]
+
'''We walk the stage of life, performers of a drama for the benefit of the cosmic spectator. As the scenes proceed he notices that the actors are growing smaller and the action quicker. When the last act opens the curtain rises on midget actors rushing through their parts at frantic speed. Smaller and smaller. Faster and faster. One last microscopic blurr of intense agitation. And then nothing.'''
  
−
| journal    = The Astrophysical Journal
+
:—Eddington, Arthur. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.220736/page/n105/mode/2up The Expanding Universe] CUP, 1933, pp.&nbsp;90–92
−
 
 
−
华尔街天文物理期刊
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 48
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 48
 
−
 
 
−
第48卷
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 35–49
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 35–49
 
−
 
 
−
第35-49页
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1918ApJ....48...35M
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1918ApJ....48...35M
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode 1918ApJ... 48... 35M
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1086/142412
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1086/142412
 
−
 
 
−
10.1086 / 142412
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Macmillan
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Macmillan
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个麦克米伦
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = William D.
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = William D.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是威廉 d。
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = William Duncan MacMillan
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = William Duncan MacMillan
 
−
 
 
−
威廉 · 邓肯 · 麦克米伦
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = 31 July 1925
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = 31 July 1925
 
−
 
 
−
日期: 1925年7月31日
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Some Mathematical Aspects of Cosmology
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Some Mathematical Aspects of Cosmology
 
−
 
 
−
宇宙学的一些数学方面
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = [[Science (journal)|Science]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Science
 
−
 
 
−
科学》杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 62
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 62
 
−
 
 
−
第62卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 1596
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 1596
 
−
 
 
−
第1596期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 96–9
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 96–9
 
−
 
 
−
第96-9页
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1925Sci....62..121M
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1925Sci....62..121M
 
−
 
 
−
1925 / sci... 62. . 121 m
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1126/science.62.1596.96
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1126/science.62.1596.96
 
−
 
 
−
10.1126 / science. 62.1596.96
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid        = 17752724
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid        = 17752724
 
−
 
 
−
17752724
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==Time frame for heat death==
 
−
 
 
−
{{Main|Future of an expanding universe}}
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
From the [[Big Bang]] through the present day, [[matter]] and [[dark matter]] in the universe are thought to have been concentrated in [[star]]s, [[galaxies]], and [[galaxy cluster]]s, and are presumed to continue to be so well into the future. Therefore, the universe is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, and objects can do physical work.<ref name="A dying universe">
 
−
 
 
−
From the Big Bang through the present day, matter and dark matter in the universe are thought to have been concentrated in stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters, and are presumed to continue to be so well into the future. Therefore, the universe is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, and objects can do physical work.<ref name="A dying universe">
 
−
 
 
−
从大爆炸到现在，宇宙中的物质和暗物质被认为集中在恒星、星系和星系团中，并且被认为在未来会继续保持这种状态。因此，宇宙不在热力学平衡中，物体可以做物理工作
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Adams
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Adams
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个亚当斯
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Fred C.
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Fred C.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是弗雷德 c。
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link  = Fred Adams
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link  = Fred Adams
 
−
 
 
−
作者链接弗雷德 · 亚当斯
 
−
 
 
−
| last2        = Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
| last2        = Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
2 Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
| first2      = Gregory
 
−
 
 
−
| first2      = Gregory
 
−
 
 
−
第二名: 格雷戈里
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link2 = Gregory P. Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link2 = Gregory P. Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
作者: Gregory p. Laughlin
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1997
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1997
 
−
 
 
−
1997年
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects
 
−
 
 
−
| 题目: 垂死的宇宙: 天体物理学物体的长期命运和演化
 
−
 
 
−
| journal      = [[Reviews of Modern Physics]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal      = Reviews of Modern Physics
 
−
 
 
−
现代物理学评论
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 69
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 69
 
−
 
 
−
第69卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue        = 2
 
−
 
 
−
| issue        = 2
 
−
 
 
−
第二期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages        = 337–72
 
−
 
 
−
| pages        = 337–72
 
−
 
 
−
第337-72页
 
−
 
 
−
|arxiv        = astro-ph/9701131
 
−
 
 
−
|arxiv        = astro-ph/9701131
 
−
 
 
−
|arxiv        = astro-ph/9701131
 
−
 
 
−
|bibcode      = 1997RvMP...69..337A
 
−
 
 
−
|bibcode      = 1997RvMP...69..337A
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode 1997RvMP... 69. . 337 a
 
−
 
 
−
|doi          = 10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
 
−
 
 
−
|doi          = 10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
 
−
 
 
−
10.1103 / RevModPhys. 69.337
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><sup>,&nbsp;§VID.</sup> The decay time for a [[supermassive black hole]] of roughly 1 galaxy mass (10<sup>11</sup>&nbsp;[[solar mass]]es) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of [[googol|10<sup>100</sup>]]&nbsp;years,<ref name="page">
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><sup>,&nbsp;§VID.</sup> The decay time for a supermassive black hole of roughly 1 galaxy mass (10<sup>11</sup>&nbsp;solar masses) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10<sup>100</sup>&nbsp;years,<ref name="page">
 
−
 
 
−
开始 / ref sup，VID。 一个大约有1个星系质量(10个11个 / 11个 / 11个太阳质量)的超重黑洞由于霍金辐射而产生的衰变时间大约是10个100 / 100年，ref name"page"
 
−
 
 
−
See in particular equation (27) in {{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
See in particular equation (27) in {{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
见{ Cite journal 中的特殊方程式(27)
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Page
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Page
 
−
 
 
−
最后一页
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Don N.
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Don N.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是 Don n。
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Don Page (physicist)
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Don Page (physicist)
 
−
 
 
−
| 作者链接 Don Page (物理学家)
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = 15 January 1976
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = 15 January 1976
 
−
 
 
−
1976年1月15日
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Particle emission rates from a black hole: Massless particles from an uncharged, nonrotating hole
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Particle emission rates from a black hole: Massless particles from an uncharged, nonrotating hole
 
−
 
 
−
| 题目黑洞的粒子发射率: 来自不带电荷、不旋转的黑洞的无质量粒子
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = [[Physical Review D]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Physical Review D
 
−
 
 
−
物理评论 d 期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 13
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 13
 
−
 
 
−
第13卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 2
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 2
 
−
 
 
−
第二期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 198–206
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 198–206
 
−
 
 
−
第198-206页
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1976PhRvD..13..198P
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 1976PhRvD..13..198P
 
−
 
 
−
1976 / phrvd. 13. . 198 p
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198
 
−
 
 
−
10.1103 / physicrevd. 13.198
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> so entropy can be produced until at least that time. Some large black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10<sup>14</sup> {{solar mass}} during the collapse of [[supercluster]]s of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10<sup>106</sup> years.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> so entropy can be produced until at least that time. Some large black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10<sup>14</sup>  during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10<sup>106</sup> years.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref，因此熵可以产生，直到至少那个时间。据预测，在超星系团坍缩期间，宇宙中的一些大型黑洞可能会继续增长到10个以上。即使这些也会在最多10 / 106 / 100年的时间内蒸发
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last    = Frautschi
 
−
 
 
−
| last    = Frautschi
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个 Frautschi
 
−
 
 
−
| first  = Steven
 
−
 
 
−
| first  = Steven
 
−
 
 
−
首先是史蒂文
 
−
 
 
−
| date    = 13 August 1982
 
−
 
 
−
| date    = 13 August 1982
 
−
 
 
−
1982年8月13日
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Entropy in an Expanding Universe
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Entropy in an Expanding Universe
 
−
 
 
−
正在膨胀的宇宙中的熵
 
−
 
 
−
| url    = http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/Frautschi_Science_1982.pdf
 
−
 
 
−
| url    = http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/Frautschi_Science_1982.pdf
 
−
 
 
−
Http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/scientists/layzer/frautschi_science_1982.pdf
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = Science
 
−
 
 
−
科学》杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 217
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 217
 
−
 
 
−
第217卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 4560
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 4560
 
−
 
 
−
第4560期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 593–9
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 593–9
 
−
 
 
−
第593-9页
 
−
 
 
−
| jstor  = 1688892
 
−
 
 
−
| jstor  = 1688892
 
−
 
 
−
1688892
 
−
 
 
−
| quote  = Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding—for instance, superclusters of galaxies—black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 10<sup>14</sup>{{solar mass}} ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10<sup>106</sup> years for black holes of up to 10<sup>14</sup>{{solar mass}}
 
−
 
 
−
| quote  = Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding—for instance, superclusters of galaxies—black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 10<sup>14</sup> ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10<sup>106</sup> years for black holes of up to 10<sup>14</sup>
 
−
 
 
−
| quote 自从我们假设了一个引力结合的最大尺度以来ー例如，星系的超星系团ー黑洞的形成最终在我们的模型中结束，质量高达10倍14倍... 黑洞辐射出它们所有能量范围的时间尺度... 至高达10倍106倍14倍的黑洞
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 1982Sci...217..593F
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 1982Sci...217..593F
 
−
 
 
−
1982Sci... 217. . 593 f
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1126/science.217.4560.593
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1126/science.217.4560.593
 
−
 
 
−
10.1126 / science. 217.4560.593
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid    = 17817517
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid    = 17817517
 
−
 
 
−
17817517
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> After that time, the universe enters the so-called [[future of an expanding universe#Dark Era|Dark Era]] and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of [[photon]]s and [[lepton]]s.<ref name="A dying universe" /><sup>§VIA</sup> With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second [[inflation (cosmology)|inflationary]] epoch, or assuming that the current [[vacuum]] state is a [[false vacuum]], the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.<ref name="A dying universe" /><sup>,&nbsp;§VE.</sup> It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.<ref name="A dying universe" /><sup>,&nbsp;§VID.</sup> Another universe could possibly be created by random [[quantum fluctuation]]s or [[quantum tunneling]] in roughly <math>10^{10^{10^{56}}}</math> years.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> After that time, the universe enters the so-called Dark Era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons.<sup>§VIA</sup> With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.<sup>,&nbsp;§VE.</sup> It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.<sup>,&nbsp;§VID.</sup> Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly <math>10^{10^{10^{56}}}</math> years.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
在那之后，宇宙进入了所谓的黑暗时期，预计主要由光子和轻子组成的稀薄气体组成。 由于只剩下非常分散的物质，宇宙中的活动将急剧减弱，能量水平极低，时间尺度极长。推测一下，宇宙可能会进入第二个暴胀时期，或者假设当前的真空状态是假真空，真空可能会衰变为低能状态。 你好，VE。 还有一种可能是，产生熵将停止，宇宙将进入热死状态。 你好，VID。 / sup 另一个宇宙可能是由随机的量子涨落或量子穿隧效应在大约10 ^ {10 ^ {56}} / 数学年中产生的。 裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arXiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arXiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arXiv
 
−
 
 
−
| eprint = hep-th/0410270
 
−
 
 
−
| eprint = hep-th/0410270
 
−
 
 
−
Hep-th / 0410270
 
−
 
 
−
| first1 = Sean M.
 
−
 
 
−
| first1 = Sean M.
 
−
 
 
−
首先，肖恩 · m。
 
−
 
 
−
| last1  = Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
| last1  = Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
卡罗尔
 
−
 
 
−
| first2 = Jennifer
 
−
 
 
−
| first2 = Jennifer
 
−
 
 
−
| first2 Jennifer
 
−
 
 
−
| last2  = Chen
 
−
 
 
−
| last2  = Chen
 
−
 
 
−
| 最后2陈
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Spontaneous Inflation and Origin of the Arrow of Time
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Spontaneous Inflation and Origin of the Arrow of Time
 
−
 
 
−
自发性通货膨胀与时间之箭的起源
 
−
 
 
−
| date  = October 2004
 
−
 
 
−
| date  = October 2004
 
−
 
 
−
2004年10月
 
−
 
 
−
}}{{bibcode|2004hep.th...10270C}}
 
−
 
 
−
}}
 
−
 
 
−
}}
 
−
 
 
−
</ref> Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous [[entropy]] ''decrease'' would eventually occur via the [[Poincaré recurrence theorem]],{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} [[thermal fluctuations]],<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
</ref> Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy decrease would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations,<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
/ ref 在大量的时间里，自发的熵减少最终会通过庞加莱始态复现定理，热涨落，参考
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
最后的 Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Max
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Max
 
−
 
 
−
第一个 Max
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| 作者链接 Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Parallel Universes
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Parallel Universes
 
−
 
 
−
| 标题: 平行宇宙
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Scientific American
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Scientific American
 
−
 
 
−
科学美国人》杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 288
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 288
 
−
 
 
−
第288卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
2003年发行
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 40–51
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 40–51
 
−
 
 
−
第40-51页
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
2003年
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2003SciAm.288e..40T
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2003SciAm.288e..40T
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode 2003 / sciam. 288 e. . 40 t
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
10.1038 / scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid = 12701329
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid = 12701329
 
−
 
 
−
12701329
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
最后的 Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Max
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Max
 
−
 
 
−
第一个 Max
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = May 2003
 
−
 
 
−
| date        = May 2003
 
−
 
 
−
2003年5月
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| 作者链接 Max Tegmark
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Parallel Universes
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Parallel Universes
 
−
 
 
−
| 标题: 平行宇宙
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = [[Scientific American]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Scientific American
 
−
 
 
−
科学美国人》杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 288
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 288
 
−
 
 
−
第288卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 5
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 5
 
−
 
 
−
第五期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 40–51
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 40–51
 
−
 
 
−
第40-51页
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv      = astro-ph/0302131
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2003SciAm.288e..40T
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2003SciAm.288e..40T
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode 2003 / sciam. 288 e. . 40 t
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
10.1038 / scientificamerican0503-40
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid = 12701329
 
−
 
 
−
| pmid = 12701329
 
−
 
 
−
12701329
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last1  = Werlang
 
−
 
 
−
| last1  = Werlang
 
−
 
 
−
| last 1 Werlang
 
−
 
 
−
| first1  = T.
 
−
 
 
−
| first1  = T.
 
−
 
 
−
首先1 t。
 
−
 
 
−
| last2  = Ribeiro
 
−
 
 
−
| last2  = Ribeiro
 
−
 
 
−
2 Ribeiro
 
−
 
 
−
| first2  = G. A. P.
 
−
 
 
−
| first2  = G. A. P.
 
−
 
 
−
| 首先2 g a p。
 
−
 
 
−
| last3  = Rigolin
 
−
 
 
−
| last3  = Rigolin
 
−
 
 
−
| last 3 Rigolin
 
−
 
 
−
| first3  = Gustavo
 
−
 
 
−
| first3  = Gustavo
 
−
 
 
−
| first3 Gustavo
 
−
 
 
−
| year    = 2013
 
−
 
 
−
| year    = 2013
 
−
 
 
−
2013年
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Interplay between quantum phase transitions and the behavior of quantum correlations at finite temperatures.org
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Interplay between quantum phase transitions and the behavior of quantum correlations at finite temperatures.org
 
−
 
 
−
有限 temperatures.org 中量子相变和量子关联行为之间的相互作用
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = [[International Journal of Modern Physics B]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = International Journal of Modern Physics B
 
−
 
 
−
国际现代物理学杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 27
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 27
 
−
 
 
−
第27卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 1n03
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 1n03
 
−
 
 
−
第1n03期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 1345032
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 1345032
 
−
 
 
−
1345032页
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv  = 1205.1046
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv  = 1205.1046
 
−
 
 
−
1205.1046
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 2013IJMPB..2745032W
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 2013IJMPB..2745032W
 
−
 
 
−
2013IJMPB. . 2745032 w
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1142/S021797921345032X
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1142/S021797921345032X
 
−
 
 
−
10.1142 / S021797921345032X
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> and [[fluctuation theorem]].<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> and fluctuation theorem.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 和涨落定理
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Spontaneous entropy decrease and its statistical formula
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Spontaneous entropy decrease and its statistical formula
 
−
 
 
−
自发熵减少及其统计公式
 
−
 
 
−
| author    = Xiu-San Xing
 
−
 
 
−
| author    = Xiu-San Xing
 
−
 
 
−
作者: Xiu-San Xing
 
−
 
 
−
| date      = 1 November 2007
 
−
 
 
−
| date      = 1 November 2007
 
−
 
 
−
2007年11月1日
 
−
 
 
−
| eprint    = 0710.4624
 
−
 
 
−
| eprint    = 0710.4624
 
−
 
 
−
0710.4624
 
−
 
 
−
| class    =cond-mat.stat-mech
 
−
 
 
−
| class    =cond-mat.stat-mech
 
−
 
 
−
上课时间到，快点
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last    = Linde
 
−
 
 
−
| last    = Linde
 
−
 
 
−
最后的林德
 
−
 
 
−
| first  = Andrei
 
−
 
 
−
| first  = Andrei
 
−
 
 
−
| first  = Andrei
 
−
 
 
−
| year    = 2007
 
−
 
 
−
| year    = 2007
 
−
 
 
−
2007年
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant problem
 
−
 
 
−
| title  = Sinks in the landscape, Boltzmann brains and the cosmological constant problem
 
−
 
 
−
沉没在风景中，玻尔兹曼的大脑和宇宙学常数问题
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = [[Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal = Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
 
−
 
 
−
宇宙学和天体粒子物理学学杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 2007
 
−
 
 
−
| volume  = 2007
 
−
 
 
−
2007年
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 1
 
−
 
 
−
| issue  = 1
 
−
 
 
−
第一期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 022
 
−
 
 
−
| pages  = 022
 
−
 
 
−
第022页
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv  = hep-th/0611043
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv  = hep-th/0611043
 
−
 
 
−
第四肝脏 / 0611043
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 2007JCAP...01..022L
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode = 2007JCAP...01..022L
 
−
 
 
−
2007JCAP... 01. . 022 l
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022
 
−
 
 
−
| doi    = 10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022
 
−
 
 
−
10.1088 / 1475-7516 / 2007 / 01 / 022
 
−
 
 
−
| citeseerx  = 10.1.1.266.8334
 
−
 
 
−
| citeseerx  = 10.1.1.266.8334
 
−
 
 
−
10.1.1.266.8334
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable".<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable".<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 然而，这样的场景被描述为“高度投机的，可能是错误的，并且完全不可测试”
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite web
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite web
 
−
 
 
−
{引用网页
 
−
 
 
−
|url    = https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157
 
−
 
 
−
|url    = https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157
 
−
 
 
−
Https://theconversation.com/the-fate-of-the-universe-heat-death-big-rip-or-cosmic-consciousness-46157
 
−
 
 
−
|title  = The fate of the universe: heat death, Big Rip or cosmic consciousness?
 
−
 
 
−
|title  = The fate of the universe: heat death, Big Rip or cosmic consciousness?
 
−
 
 
−
宇宙的命运: 热死、大撕裂还是宇宙意识？
 
−
 
 
−
|last    = Pimbblet
 
−
 
 
−
|last    = Pimbblet
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个 Pimbblet
 
−
 
 
−
|first  = Kevin
 
−
 
 
−
|first  = Kevin
 
−
 
 
−
先是凯文
 
−
 
 
−
|date    = 3 September 2015
 
−
 
 
−
|date    = 3 September 2015
 
−
 
 
−
2015年9月3日
 
−
 
 
−
|website = [[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]
 
−
 
 
−
|website = The Conversation
 
−
 
 
−
网站 The Conversation
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> [[Sean M. Carroll]], originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔(Sean m. Carroll) ，本来是这个想法的拥护者，现在不再支持它了
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite video
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite video
 
−
 
 
−
{引用视频
 
−
 
 
−
|last        = Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
|last        = Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
最后的卡罗尔
 
−
 
 
−
|first      = Sean
 
−
 
 
−
|first      = Sean
 
−
 
 
−
先是肖恩
 
−
 
 
−
|title      = Sean Carroll, "Fluctuations in de Sitter Space" FQXi conference 2014 in Vieques
 
−
 
 
−
|title      = Sean Carroll, "Fluctuations in de Sitter Space" FQXi conference 2014 in Vieques
 
−
 
 
−
肖恩 · 卡罗尔，“德西特空间的波动”2014年在 Vieques 举行的 FQXi 会议
 
−
 
 
−
|date        = 27 January 2014
 
−
 
 
−
|date        = 27 January 2014
 
−
 
 
−
2014年1月27日
 
−
 
 
−
|url        = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeDUU7HM
 
−
 
 
−
|url        = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeDUU7HM
 
−
 
 
−
Https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-qqeduu7hm
 
−
 
 
−
|publisher  = FQXi
 
−
 
 
−
|publisher  = FQXi
 
−
 
 
−
出版商 FQXi
 
−
 
 
−
|author-link = Sean M. Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
|author-link = Sean M. Carroll
 
−
 
 
−
肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
{{cite arxiv
 
−
 
 
−
|last1=Boddy |first1=Kimberly K.
 
−
 
 
−
|last1=Boddy |first1=Kimberly K.
 
−
 
 
−
| 最后一个博迪 | 第一个金伯莉 k。
 
−
 
 
−
|last2=Carroll |first2=Sean M.
 
−
 
 
−
|last2=Carroll |first2=Sean M.
 
−
 
 
−
2 Carroll | first2 Sean m.
 
−
 
 
−
|last3=Pollack |first3=Jason
 
−
 
 
−
|last3=Pollack |first3=Jason
 
−
 
 
−
3 Jason
 
−
 
 
−
|year=2014
 
−
 
 
−
|year=2014
 
−
 
 
−
2014年
 
−
 
 
−
|title=De Sitter Space Without Dynamical Quantum Fluctuations
 
−
 
 
−
|title=De Sitter Space Without Dynamical Quantum Fluctuations
 
−
 
 
−
没有动力学量子涨落的德西特空间
 
−
 
 
−
|eprint=1405.0298
 
−
 
 
−
|eprint=1405.0298
 
−
 
 
−
1405.0298
 
−
 
 
−
|class=hep-th
 
−
 
 
−
|class=hep-th
 
−
 
 
−
我会去上课的
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==Controversies==
 
−
 
 
−
[[Max Planck]] wrote that the phrase "entropy of the universe" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Max Planck wrote that the phrase "entropy of the universe" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
马克斯 · 普朗克写道，“宇宙的熵”这个短语没有任何意义，因为它承认没有准确的定义
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics)
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics)
 
−
 
 
−
| 标题熵(普林斯顿应用数学系列)
 
−
 
 
−
| last          = Uffink
 
−
 
 
−
| last          = Uffink
 
−
 
 
−
最后一次
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Jos
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Jos
 
−
 
 
−
首先是乔斯
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher    = Princeton University Press
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher    = Princeton University Press
 
−
 
 
−
出版商普林斯顿大学出版社
 
−
 
 
−
| year          = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
| year          = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
2003年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn          = 978-0-691-11338-8
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn          = 978-0-691-11338-8
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-691-11338-8]
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last  = Greven
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last  = Greven
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-最后的格雷文
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first  = Andreas
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first  = Andreas
 
−
 
 
−
编辑-第一安德里亚斯
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last2  = Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last2  = Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
2 Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first2 = Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first2 = Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
编辑第一2名 Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last3  = Keller
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last3  = Keller
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-最后3个凯勒
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first3 = Gerhard
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first3 = Gerhard
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-first3格哈德
 
−
 
 
−
| pages        = 129
 
−
 
 
−
| pages        = 129
 
−
 
 
−
第129页
 
−
 
 
−
| chapter      = Irreversibility and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
| chapter      = Irreversibility and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
不可逆转性与热力学第二定律
 
−
 
 
−
| quote        = The importance of Planck's Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik (Planck 1897) can hardly be [over]estimated. The book has gone through 11 editions, from 1897 until 1964, and still remains the most authoritative exposition of classical thermodynamics.
 
−
 
 
−
| quote        = The importance of Planck's Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik (Planck 1897) can hardly be [over]estimated. The book has gone through 11 editions, from 1897 until 1964, and still remains the most authoritative exposition of classical thermodynamics.
 
−
 
 
−
普朗克热动力学(1897)的重要性很难被高估。这本书从1897年到1964年已经经历了11个版本，至今仍然是古典热力学最权威的阐述。
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| url              = https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up
 
−
 
 
−
| url              = https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up
 
−
 
 
−
Https://archive.org/stream/treatiseonthermo00planrich#page/100/mode/2up
 
−
 
 
−
| title            = Treatise on Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
| title            = Treatise on Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
热力学论文
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Planck
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Planck
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个普朗克
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Max
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Max
 
−
 
 
−
第一个 Max
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 1903
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 1903
 
−
 
 
−
1903年
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 101
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 101
 
−
 
 
−
第101页
 
−
 
 
−
| translator-last  = Ogg
 
−
 
 
−
| translator-last  = Ogg
 
−
 
 
−
| translator-last Ogg
 
−
 
 
−
| translator-first = Alexander
 
−
 
 
−
| translator-first = Alexander
 
−
 
 
−
第一个亚历山大
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link      = Max Planck
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link      = Max Planck
 
−
 
 
−
马克斯 · 普朗克
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher            = London : Longmans, Green
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher            = London : Longmans, Green
 
−
 
 
−
伦敦出版社: Longmans，Green
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> More recently, [[Walter Grandy]] writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> More recently, Walter Grandy writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
更近一些时候，Walter Grandy 写道: “我们仍然对宇宙的熵知之甚少，我们想知道如何定义一个宇宙及其主要成分的熵，这些成分在其整个存在过程中从未处于平衡状态。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Entropy and the Time Evolution of Macroscopic Systems
 
−
 
 
−
熵与宏观系统的时间演化
 
−
 
 
−
| last      = Grandy
 
−
 
 
−
| last      = Grandy
 
−
 
 
−
| last Grandy
 
−
 
 
−
| first    = Walter T., Jr.
 
−
 
 
−
| first    = Walter T., Jr.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是小沃尔特 · t。
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher = Oxford University Press
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher = Oxford University Press
 
−
 
 
−
牛津大学出版社
 
−
 
 
−
| year      = 2008
 
−
 
 
−
| year      = 2008
 
−
 
 
−
2008年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn      = 978-0-19-954617-6
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn      = 978-0-19-954617-6
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书馆编号978-0-19-954617-6]
 
−
 
 
−
| page      = 151
 
−
 
 
−
| page      = 151
 
−
 
 
−
第151页
 
−
 
 
−
| url      = https://books.google.com/?id=SnMF37J50DgC
 
−
 
 
−
| url      = https://books.google.com/?id=SnMF37J50DgC
 
−
 
 
−
Https://books.google.com/?id=snmf37j50dgc
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> According to [[László Tisza|Tisza]]: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> According to Tisza: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 根据 Tisza 的说法: “如果一个孤立的系统不处于平衡状态，我们就不能把熵和它联系起来。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Generalized Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Generalized Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
广义热力学
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个 Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = László
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = László
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = László
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = László Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = László Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = László Tisza
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = MIT Press
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = MIT Press
 
−
 
 
−
出版商: 麻省理工出版社
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1966
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1966
 
−
 
 
−
1966年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-262-20010-3
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-262-20010-3
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-262-20010-3]
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 41
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 41
 
−
 
 
−
第41页
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> [[Hans Adolf Buchdahl|Buchdahl]] writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system".<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Buchdahl writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system".<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref Buchdahl 写道: “宇宙可以被视为一个封闭的热力学系统，这是完全不合理的假设。”
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
经典热力学的概念
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Buchdahl
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Buchdahl
 
−
 
 
−
最后一瓶布赫达
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = H. A.
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = H. A.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是 h. a。
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = Cambridge University Press
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = Cambridge University Press
 
−
 
 
−
剑桥大学出版社
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1966
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1966
 
−
 
 
−
1966年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-521-11519-3
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-0-521-11519-3
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-521-11519-3]
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 97
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 97
 
−
 
 
−
第97页
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Hans Adolf Buchdahl
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Hans Adolf Buchdahl
 
−
 
 
−
作者: Hans Adolf Buchdahl
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> According to [[Giovanni Gallavotti|Gallavotti]]: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> According to Gallavotti: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 根据 Gallavotti 的说法: “对于失去平衡的系统，没有普遍接受的熵的概念，即使是在定态中。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Statistical Mechanics: A Short Treatise
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Statistical Mechanics: A Short Treatise
 
−
 
 
−
统计力学: 一篇简短的论文
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Gallavotti
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Gallavotti
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个 Gallavotti
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Giovanni
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Giovanni
 
−
 
 
−
首先是乔瓦尼
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = Springer
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher  = Springer
 
−
 
 
−
出版商斯普林格
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1999
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 1999
 
−
 
 
−
1999年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-3-540-64883-3
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn        = 978-3-540-64883-3
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书馆编号978-3-540-64883-3]
 
−
 
 
−
| page        = 290
 
−
 
 
−
| page        = 290
 
−
 
 
−
290页
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Giovanni Gallavotti
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Giovanni Gallavotti
 
−
 
 
−
作者: 乔瓦尼 · 加拉沃蒂
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, [[Elliott H. Lieb|Lieb]] and [[Jakob Yngvason|Yngvason]] express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
讨论了一般非平衡态的熵问题，Lieb 和 Yngvason 表达了他们的观点如下: “尽管大多数物理学家相信存在这种非平衡态熵，但迄今为止已经证明不可能以一种明显令人满意的方式来定义它。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics)
 
−
 
 
−
| title        = Entropy (Princeton Series in Applied Mathematics)
 
−
 
 
−
| 标题熵(普林斯顿应用数学系列)
 
−
 
 
−
| last          = Lieb
 
−
 
 
−
| last          = Lieb
 
−
 
 
−
最后里布
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Elliott H.
 
−
 
 
−
| first        = Elliott H.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是艾略特 h。
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link  = Elliott H. Lieb
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link  = Elliott H. Lieb
 
−
 
 
−
作者链接 Elliott h. Lieb
 
−
 
 
−
| last2        = Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
| last2        = Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
2 Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
| first2        = Jakob
 
−
 
 
−
| first2        = Jakob
 
−
 
 
−
| first2 Jakob
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link2  = Jakob Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link2  = Jakob Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
2 Jakob Yngvason
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher    = Princeton University Press
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher    = Princeton University Press
 
−
 
 
−
出版商普林斯顿大学出版社
 
−
 
 
−
| year          = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
| year          = 2003
 
−
 
 
−
2003年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn          = 978-0-691-11338-8
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn          = 978-0-691-11338-8
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-691-11338-8]
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last  = Greven
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last  = Greven
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-最后的格雷文
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first  = Andreas
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first  = Andreas
 
−
 
 
−
编辑-第一安德里亚斯
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last2  = Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last2  = Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
2 Warnecke
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first2 = Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first2 = Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
编辑第一2名 Gerald
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last3  = Keller
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-last3  = Keller
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-最后3个凯勒
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first3 = Gerhard
 
−
 
 
−
| editor-first3 = Gerhard
 
−
 
 
−
| 编辑-first3格哈德
 
−
 
 
−
| page          = 190
 
−
 
 
−
| page          = 190
 
−
 
 
−
第190页
 
−
 
 
−
| chapter      = The entropy of classical thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
| chapter      = The entropy of classical thermodynamics
 
−
 
 
−
经典热力学的熵
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> In Landsberg's opinion: "The ''third'' misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> In Landsberg's opinion: "The third misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref 在 Landsberg 的观点中: “第三个误解是热力学，特别是熵的概念，不需要进一步的探究就可以应用于整个宇宙。...这些问题有一定的魅力，但答案是推测，并在这本书的范围之外。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite book
 
−
 
 
−
{引用书
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Thermodynamics with Quantum Statistical Illustrations
 
−
 
 
−
| title    = Thermodynamics with Quantum Statistical Illustrations
 
−
 
 
−
量子统计图解热力学
 
−
 
 
−
| last      = Landsberg
 
−
 
 
−
| last      = Landsberg
 
−
 
 
−
最后的兰兹伯格
 
−
 
 
−
| first    = Peter Theodore
 
−
 
 
−
| first    = Peter Theodore
 
−
 
 
−
首先是彼得 · 西奥多
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher = Interscience Publishers
 
−
 
 
−
| publisher = Interscience Publishers
 
−
 
 
−
出版商 Interscience Publishers
 
−
 
 
−
| year      = 1961
 
−
 
 
−
| year      = 1961
 
−
 
 
−
1961年
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn      = 978-0-470-51381-1
 
−
 
 
−
| isbn      = 978-0-470-51381-1
 
−
 
 
−
[国际标准图书编号978-0-470-51381-1]
 
−
 
 
−
| edition  = First
 
−
 
 
−
| edition  = First
 
−
 
 
−
第一版
 
−
 
 
−
| pages    = 391
 
−
 
 
−
| pages    = 391
 
−
 
 
−
第391页
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
A 2010 analysis of entropy states, "The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known", and, "gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the [[observable universe]] has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
A 2010 analysis of entropy states, "The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known", and, "gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the observable universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
2010年对熵状态的分析，“一个普通引力场的熵仍然不为人知” ，以及“引力熵很难量化”。该分析考虑了几个可能的假设，这些假设对于估计来说是必要的，并且表明可观测宇宙的熵比之前想象的要多。这是因为分析得出结论，超大质量黑洞是最大的贡献者
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Egan
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Egan
 
−
 
 
−
最后一个伊根
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Chas A.
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Chas A.
 
−
 
 
−
首先是查斯 a。
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lineweaver
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lineweaver
 
−
 
 
−
2 Lineweaver
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Charles H.
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Charles H.
 
−
 
 
−
第二名: 查尔斯 h。
 
−
 
 
−
| title            = A Larger Estimate of the Entropy of the Universe
 
−
 
 
−
| title            = A Larger Estimate of the Entropy of the Universe
 
−
 
 
−
宇宙熵的一个更大的估计
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = [[The Astrophysical Journal]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = The Astrophysical Journal
 
−
 
 
−
华尔街天文物理期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date = 3 February 2010
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date = 3 February 2010
 
−
 
 
−
| 出版日期: 2010年2月3日
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 710
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 710
 
−
 
 
−
第710卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue            = 2
 
−
 
 
−
| issue            = 2
 
−
 
 
−
第二期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 1825–34 [1826]
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 1825–34 [1826]
 
−
 
 
−
1825-34页[1826]
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv            = 0909.3983
 
−
 
 
−
| arxiv            = 0909.3983
 
−
 
 
−
0909.3983
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode          = 2010ApJ...710.1825E
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode          = 2010ApJ...710.1825E
 
−
 
 
−
710.1825 e
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1088/0004-637X/710/2/1825
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1088/0004-637X/710/2/1825
 
−
 
 
−
10.1088 / 0004-637X / 710 / 2 / 1825
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2010
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2010
 
−
 
 
−
2010年
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> [[Lee Smolin]] goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref> Lee Smolin goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems."<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
O < / o < o < / o < o < / o 李 · 斯莫林更进一步说: “人们早就知道，引力对于保持宇宙远离热平衡十分重要。引力束缚系统具有负的比热，也就是说，当能量消失时，其组分的速度增加。...这样的系统不会演化到均匀的平衡状态。相反，随着它分解成子系统，它变得越来越结构化和异构化。裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Smolin
 
−
 
 
−
| last        = Smolin
 
−
 
 
−
最后的斯莫林
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Lee
 
−
 
 
−
| first      = Lee
 
−
 
 
−
李先生
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Lee Smolin
 
−
 
 
−
| author-link = Lee Smolin
 
−
 
 
−
作者: 李 · 斯莫林
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 2014
 
−
 
 
−
| year        = 2014
 
−
 
 
−
2014年
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Time, laws, and future of cosmology
 
−
 
 
−
| title      = Time, laws, and future of cosmology
 
−
 
 
−
时间、定律和宇宙学的未来
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = [[Physics Today]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal    = Physics Today
 
−
 
 
−
| 今日物理杂志
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 67
 
−
 
 
−
| volume      = 67
 
−
 
 
−
第67卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 3
 
−
 
 
−
| issue      = 3
 
−
 
 
−
第三期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 38–43 [42]
 
−
 
 
−
| pages      = 38–43 [42]
 
−
 
 
−
第三十八至四十三页
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2014PhT....67c..38S
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode    = 2014PhT....67c..38S
 
−
 
 
−
| bibcode 2014PhT... 67c. . 38 s
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1063/pt.3.2310
 
−
 
 
−
| doi        = 10.1063/pt.3.2310
 
−
 
 
−
10.1063 / pt. 3.2310
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
 
−
This point of view is also supported by the fact of a recent experimental discovery of a stable non-equilibrium steady state in a relatively simple closed system. It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
This point of view is also supported by the fact of a recent experimental discovery of a stable non-equilibrium steady state in a relatively simple closed system. It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics.<ref>
 
−
 
 
−
最近实验发现在一个相对简单的封闭系统中存在稳定的非平衡稳态，这一事实也支持了这一观点。可以预期的是，一个分裂成子系统的孤立系统不一定会达到热力学平衡并保持非平衡的稳定状态。熵将从一个子系统传递到另一个子系统，但是它的产出将为零，这与热力学第二定律并不矛盾。 裁判
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
最后的 Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Sergey S.
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Sergey S.
 
−
 
 
−
谢尔盖 · s。
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| 最后2个 Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Alexander S.
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Alexander S.
 
−
 
 
−
第二名: 亚历山大 · s。
 
−
 
 
−
|title              = Cu2+/Cu+ Redox Battery Utilizing Low-Potential External Heat for Recharge
 
−
 
 
−
|title              = Cu2+/Cu+ Redox Battery Utilizing Low-Potential External Heat for Recharge
 
−
 
 
−
利用低电位外热进行充电的 Cu2 + / Cu + 氧化还原电池
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = [[The Journal of Physical Chemistry C]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
 
−
 
 
−
物理化学期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date =  30 January 2017
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date =  30 January 2017
 
−
 
 
−
| 出版日期: 2017年1月30日
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 121
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 121
 
−
 
 
−
第121卷
 
−
 
 
−
| issue            = 6
 
−
 
 
−
| issue            = 6
 
−
 
 
−
第六期
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 3234–3240
 
−
 
 
−
| pages            = 3234–3240
 
−
 
 
−
第3234-3240页
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b12317
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b12317
 
−
 
 
−
10.1021 / acs.jpcc. 6 b12317
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2017
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2017
 
−
 
 
−
2017年
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref><ref>
 
−
 
 
−
} / ref ref
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{{Cite journal
 
−
 
 
−
{引用期刊
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| last            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
最后的 Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Sergey S.
 
−
 
 
−
| first            = Sergey S.
 
−
 
 
−
谢尔盖 · s。
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| last2            = Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| 最后2个 Lemishko
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Alexander S.
 
−
 
 
−
| first2          = Alexander S.
 
−
 
 
−
第二名: 亚历山大 · s。
 
−
 
 
−
|title              = Non-equilibrium steady state in closed system with reversible reactions: Mechanism, kinetics and its possible application for energy conversion
 
−
 
 
−
|title              = Non-equilibrium steady state in closed system with reversible reactions: Mechanism, kinetics and its possible application for energy conversion
 
−
 
 
−
具有可逆反应的封闭体系中的非平衡稳态: 能量转换的机理、动力学及其可能的应用
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = [[Results in Chemistry]]
 
−
 
 
−
| journal          = Results in Chemistry
 
−
 
 
−
化学研究结果
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date =  8 February 2020
 
−
 
 
−
| publication-date =  8 February 2020
 
−
 
 
−
| 出版日期: 2020年2月8日
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 2
 
−
 
 
−
| volume          = 2
 
−
 
 
−
第二卷
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1016/j.rechem.2020.100031
 
−
 
 
−
| doi              = 10.1016/j.rechem.2020.100031
 
−
 
 
−
10.1016 / j.rechem. 2020.100031
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2020
 
−
 
 
−
| year            = 2020
 
−
 
 
−
2020年
 
−
 
 
−
| pages = 100031
 
−
 
 
−
| pages = 100031
 
−
 
 
−
100031页
 
−
 
 
−
| doi-access= free
 
−
 
 
−
| doi-access= free
 
−
 
 
−
免费访问
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
{} / ref
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==
 
−
 
 
−
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Arrow of time]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Big Bang]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Big Bounce]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Big Crunch]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Big Rip]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Chronology of the universe]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Cyclic model]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Entropy (arrow of time)]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Fluctuation theorem]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Heat death paradox]]
 
−
 
 
−
* ''[[The Last Question]]''
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Orders of magnitude (time)]]
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Thermodynamic temperature]]
 
−
 
 
−
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After the evaporation of all [[baryon]]s, the resultant bath of zero&#8209;frequency photons, indistinguishable from empty space, will condense into new [[proton]]s, each miles across, which will undergo another 13.8&#8209;billion&#8209;year&#8209;long exponentially accelerating shrinkage and evaporation. And so ''ad infinitum'':
  
 
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Category:Ultimate fate of the universe
 
Category:Ultimate fate of the universe

2020年10月25日 (日) 21:12的版本

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共650，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

For the album by Off Minor, see The Heat Death of the Universe.

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模板:Physical cosmology

The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze,[1] is a conjecture on the ultimate fate of the universe, which suggests the universe would evolve to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and would therefore be unable to sustain processes that increase entropy. Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work. In the language of physics, this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium (maximum entropy).

The heat death of the universe, also known as the Big Chill or Big Freeze, If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.:§VIA With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with extremely low energy levels and extremely long timescales. Speculatively, it is possible that the universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state.:§VE It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will reach heat death.:§VID Another universe could possibly be created by random quantum fluctuations or quantum tunneling in roughly [math]\displaystyle{ 10^{10^{10^{56}}} }[/math] years. Over vast periods of time, a spontaneous entropy decrease would eventually occur via the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and fluctuation theorem. Such a scenario, however, has been described as "highly speculative, probably wrong, [and] completely untestable". Sean M. Carroll, originally an advocate of this idea, no longer supports it.

宇宙的热死，也被称为大寒或大冻---- 如果宇宙学常数为零，宇宙将在很长一段时间内接近绝对零度。然而，如果宇宙学常数是正的，就像最近观测到的那样，温度将渐近到一个非零的正值，宇宙将接近一个最大熵的状态，在这种状态下不可能做进一步的工作。由于只剩下非常分散的物质，宇宙中的活动将急剧减弱，能量水平极低，时间尺度极长。推测地说，宇宙可能会进入第二个暴胀时期，或者假设当前的真空状态是假真空，真空可能会衰变为低能状态。也有可能产生熵将停止，宇宙将达到热死。另一个宇宙可能是由随机的量子涨落或量子穿隧效应在大约10 ^ {10 ^ {56}} </math > 年内创造出来的。在大量的时间里，自发的熵减少最终会通过庞加莱始态复现定理、热涨落和涨落定理发生。然而，这种情况被描述为“高度投机，可能是错误的，并且完全不可测试”。最初支持这一观点的肖恩 · m · 卡罗尔不再支持这一观点。


If the topology of the universe is open or flat, or if dark energy is a positive cosmological constant (both of which are consistent with current data), the universe will continue expanding forever, and a heat death is expected to occur,[2] with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period.


The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of Lord Kelvin, who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature (as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale.


Concept

The concept of the heat death of the universe is based on the observation that the gravitational potential energy of the universe, also known as rest mass that is stored mostly in baryons, self‑gravitationally shrinks and heats up to ever higher temperatures. Consequently, the ever‑smaller and ever‑hotter baryons "evaporate", with an exponential acceleration, into the seemingly expanding ambient space as photons, so that eventually the universe will consist of zero‑frequency photons:

If the rest mass decreases by Δm0, the kinetic energy E = c2Δm0 is produced. The same thing is true if we replace production of kinetic energy E by production of radiant energy E. Continuing this line of argument, one can envisage the possibility that the whole rest mass m of a body could be converted into energy. Then the energy E = m0c2 would be produced and the whole rest mass of the body would disappear.

—International Encyclopedia of Unified Science Vol. 1, nos. 6–10, University of Chicago Press, 1955, p. 460

Although mechanical energy is indestructible, there is a universal tendency to its dissipation, which produces throughout the system a gradual augmentation and diffusion of heat, cessation of motion and exhaustion of the potential energy of the material Universe.

—Thomson, William. On the Age of the Sun’s Heat Macmillan's Magazine, 5 March 1862, pp. 388–93


The exponential acceleration of baryons' evaporation has been described by Arthur Eddington:

All change is relative. The universe is expanding relatively to our common material standards; our material standards are shrinking relatively to the size of the universe. The theory of the "expanding universe" might also be called the theory of the "shrinking atom". <...>

Let us then take the whole universe as our standard of constancy, and adopt the view of a cosmic being whose body is composed of intergalactic spaces and swells as they swell. Or rather we must now say it keeps the same size, for he will not admit that it is he who has changed. Watching us for a few thousand million years, he sees us shrinking; atoms, animals, planets, even the galaxies, all shrink alike; only the intergalactic spaces remain the same. The earth spirals round the sun in an ever‑decreasing orbit. It would be absurd to treat its changing revolution as a constant unit of time. The cosmic being will naturally relate his units of length and time so that the velocity of light remains constant. Our years will then decrease in geometrical progression in the cosmic scale of time. On that scale man's life is becoming briefer; his threescore years and ten are an ever‑decreasing allowance. Owing to the property of geometrical progressions an infinite number of our years will add up to a finite cosmic time; so that what we should call the end of eternity is an ordinary finite date in the cosmic calendar. But on that date the universe has expanded to infinity in our reckoning, and we have shrunk to nothing in the reckoning of the cosmic being.

We walk the stage of life, performers of a drama for the benefit of the cosmic spectator. As the scenes proceed he notices that the actors are growing smaller and the action quicker. When the last act opens the curtain rises on midget actors rushing through their parts at frantic speed. Smaller and smaller. Faster and faster. One last microscopic blurr of intense agitation. And then nothing.

—Eddington, Arthur. The Expanding Universe CUP, 1933, pp. 90–92

Category:Physical cosmology

类别: 物理宇宙学

Category:Thermodynamic entropy

类别: 熵


Category:Doomsday scenarios

分类: 末日情景

After the evaporation of all baryons, the resultant bath of zero‑frequency photons, indistinguishable from empty space, will condense into new protons, each miles across, which will undergo another 13.8‑billion‑year‑long exponentially accelerating shrinkage and evaporation. And so ad infinitum:

Category:1851 in science

类别: 1851年的科学

Category:Ultimate fate of the universe

类别: 宇宙的终极命运


This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Heat death of the universe. Its edit history can be viewed at 热寂/edithistory

  1. ↑ WMAP – Fate of the Universe, WMAP's Universe, NASA. Accessed online July 17, 2008.
  2. ↑ {{Cite book Max Planck wrote that the phrase "entropy of the universe" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition. More recently, Walter Grandy writes: "It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence." According to Tisza: "If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it." Buchdahl writes of "the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system". According to Gallavotti: "... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state." Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: "Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way." In Landsberg's opinion: "The third misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book." 马克斯 · 普朗克写道，“宇宙的熵”这个短语没有任何意义，因为它不承认有准确的定义。最近，Walter Grandy 写道: “我们仍然对宇宙的熵知之甚少，我们想知道如何定义一个宇宙及其主要成分的熵，而这些成分在整个存在过程中从未处于平衡状态。”蒂萨说: “如果一个孤立的系统不处于平衡状态，我们就不能把熵和它联系起来。”布赫达尔写道: “宇宙可以被视为一个封闭的热力学系统，这是完全不合理的假设。”。根据 Gallavotti 的说法: “对于失去平衡的系统，没有普遍接受的熵的概念，即使是在定态中。”在讨论一般非平衡态的熵问题时，Lieb 和 Yngvason 表达了他们的观点如下: “尽管大多数物理学家相信存在这样的非平衡熵，但迄今为止已经证明不可能以一种明显令人满意的方式来定义它。”兰兹伯格认为: “第三个误解是，热力学，特别是熵的概念，不需要进一步探究就可以应用于整个宇宙。...这些问题有一定的吸引力，但答案都是推测，超出了本书的范围。” | title = Death from the Skies! | last = Plait A 2010 analysis of entropy states, "The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known", and "gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the observable universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor. Lee Smolin goes further: "It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems." 2010年对熵状态的分析表明，“一个普通引力场的熵仍然不为人知” ，“引力熵很难量化”。该分析考虑了几个可能的假设，这些假设对于估计来说是必要的，并且表明可观测宇宙的熵比之前想象的要多。这是因为分析得出结论，超大质量黑洞是最大的贡献者。李 · 斯莫林更进一步说: “人们早就知道，引力对于防止宇宙进入热平衡十分重要。引力束缚系统具有负的比热，也就是说，当能量消失时，其组分的速度增加。...这样的系统不会演化到均匀的平衡状态。相反，随着它分解成子系统，它变得越来越结构化和异构化。” | first = Philip This point of view is also supported by the fact of a recent experimental discovery of a stable non-equilibrium steady state in a relatively simple closed system. It should be expected that an isolated system fragmented into subsystems does not necessarily come to thermodynamic equilibrium and remain in non-equilibrium steady state. Entropy will be transmitted from one subsystem to another, but its production will be zero, which does not contradict the second law of thermodynamics. 最近在一个相对简单的封闭系统中实验发现了稳定的非平衡稳态，这也支持了这一观点。可以预期的是，一个分裂成子系统的孤立系统不一定会达到热力学平衡并保持非平衡的稳定状态。熵将从一个子系统传递到另一个子系统，但是它的产出将为零，这与热力学第二定律并不矛盾。 | publisher = Viking Adult | isbn = 978-0-670-01997-7 | publication-date = 16 October 2008 | pages = 259 | author-link = Phil Plait | title-link = Death from the Skies! | year = 2008 }}
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