达尔文

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{{Infobox scientist

Charles Darwin
Darwin, 1854, when he was preparing On the Origin of Species for publication 1854年，当时他正在准备出版《物种起源志
Born	Charles Robert Darwin 出生日期 The Mount, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England 出生地: 什鲁斯伯里，希罗普郡
Died	死亡日期 Down House, Downe, Kent, England 死亡地点: 英格兰肯特郡唐恩楼
Resting place	Westminster Abbey 休息地点 = 西敏寺
Title	Eminent Persons; Biographies reprinted from The Times 著名人士传记，转载自《泰晤士报》 History of evolutionary thought
Scientific career
Fields	Natural history, geology 自然历史，地质学
Institutions	Tertiary education: . He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher. As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs. 在深入研究转化的过程中，达尔文陷入了更多的工作中。在重写期刊的过程中，他开始编辑和出版自己收藏的专家报告，在亨斯洛的帮助下，他获得了1000英镑的财政部拨款，资助这本多卷本的《英国医学会航海动物学》(Voyage of h.m.s.)。Beagle，相当于 about # } in-2}的总和。他把资金扩大到包括他计划出版的地质学书籍，并同意与出版商进行不切实际的约会。随着维多利亚时代的开始，达尔文继续写他的日记，并在1837年8月开始修改印刷校样。 Overwork, illness, and marriage As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837. 由于达尔文在压力下工作，他的健康受到了影响。9月20日，他”心悸不适” ，因此医生敦促他”停止一切工作” ，在乡下生活几个星期。在访问什鲁斯伯里之后，他加入了在斯塔福德郡梅尔霍尔的韦奇伍德亲戚们，但是他发现他们太热衷于他的旅行故事，以至于不能给他足够的休息。他迷人、聪明、有教养的表妹艾玛 · 韦奇伍德，比达尔文大九个月，正在照顾他生病的姨妈。他的叔叔约西亚指出了一块地面，那里的煤渣已经消失在壤土之下，他认为这可能是蚯蚓的工作，启发了关于蚯蚓在土壤形成中的作用的“一个新的重要理论” ，达尔文于1837年11月1日在地质学会上提出了这个理论。 See also: Charles Darwin's health While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £模板:Inflation in 2022.模板:Inflation-fn He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher. As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs. Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood. 达尔文选择了和他的表妹结婚[艾玛 · 韦奇伍德] As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837. William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838. Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers. Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates. He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour. 威廉 · 惠威尔推动达尔文担任地质学会秘书的职务。在最初拒绝这项工作后，他于1838年3月接受了这个职位。尽管撰写和编辑贝格尔号的报告是一件苦差事，但达尔文在转化方面取得了显著的进步，他抓住每一个机会向博物学专家和非传统的、在人工选择有实际经验的人，比如农民和鸽子爱好者提出质疑。随着时间的推移，他的研究从他的亲戚和孩子，家庭管家，邻居，殖民地居民和以前的船友那里获得信息。他从一开始就把人类纳入自己的推测之中，1838年3月28日在动物园看到一只猩猩时，他注意到了猩猩幼稚的行为。 Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood. The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success. 这种紧张造成了严重的后果，到6月份，他已经连续卧床数天，出现了胃病、头痛和心脏病症状。在他的余生中，他反复出现胃痛、呕吐、严重疖子、心悸、颤抖和其他症状，特别是在有压力的时候，比如参加会议或社交拜访。达尔文患病的原因尚不清楚，治疗的尝试也只是昙花一现。 William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838. Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers. Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates. He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour. On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake. 6月23日，他休息了一下，去苏格兰进行“地质考察”。他在一个风和日丽的日子里拜访了格伦 · 罗伊村，看到平行的“公路”在三个高度切入山坡。他后来发表了他的观点，认为这些是海洋抬升的海滩，但不得不接受它们是原冰川湖的海岸线。 The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success. Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation. 在完全康复后，他于7月回到什鲁斯伯里。他习惯于草草记下动物饲养的日常笔记，在两张纸上潦草地写下关于婚姻、职业和前途的杂乱想法，其中一张写着“结婚”和“不结婚”。“玛丽”的优势包括“老年时有忠实的伴侣和朋友... ... 总之比养狗好” ，而不是“买书的钱少”和“时间的可怕损失”在决定结婚之后，他和父亲商量了一下，然后在7月29日去看望了他的表妹艾玛。他没有抽出时间来求婚，但他不顾父亲的劝告，提到了自己关于蜕变的想法。 On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake. Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones." This would result in the formation of new species. As he later wrote in his Autobiography: 1838年9月28日，他注意到这一论断，即人类的“人口，如果不加以控制，每25年就会翻一番，或者说以几何比例增加一倍” ，这是一个等比数列，因此人口很快就会超过食物供应，即所谓的马尔萨斯灾难。达尔文已经做好准备，将其与德 · 坎多勒的植物“物种战争”和野生动物之间的生存竞争相比较，解释了一个物种的数量是如何保持大致稳定的。由于物种总是在现有资源之外繁殖，有利的变异将使生物体更容易存活，并将变异传递给后代，而不利的变异将会消失。他写道，“所有这些楔形的最终原因，必须是理清适当的结构，并使其适应变化” ，因此，“有人可能会说，有一种力量，就像十万个楔形，试图强行进入每一种适应结构，进入自然经济的缺口，或者更确切地说，通过挤出较弱的缺口而形成缺口。”这将导致新物种的形成。正如他后来在《自传》中写道: Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation. Malthus and natural selection Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones." This would result in the formation of new species. As he later wrote in his Autobiography: By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected", thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory". He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding. While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). 到了12月中旬，达尔文看到了一个相似之处，农民在人工选择选择最好的股票，马尔萨斯自然选择机会变异，使“新获得的结构的每一部分是完全实用和完善的” ，认为这种比较“一个美丽的部分我的理论”。他后来称他的理论为自然选择，与他称之为人工选择的“人工选择”相类似。当他在伦敦找房子的时候，病情还在继续，爱玛写信催促他休息一下，几乎是预言性地写道: “所以，亲爱的查理，在我能和你一起照顾你之前，不要再生病了。”他在 Gower Street 找到了他们所谓的“金刚鹦鹉小屋”(因为里面的装饰俗气) ，然后在圣诞节期间把他的“博物馆”搬了进去。1839年1月24日，达尔文被选为英国皇家学会会员。 /* Styling for Template:Quote */ .templatequote { overflow: hidden; margin: 1em 0; padding: 0 40px; } .templatequote .templatequotecite { line-height: 1.5em; /* @noflip */ text-align: left; /* @noflip */ padding-left: 1.6em; margin-top: 0; } On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home. 1月29日，达尔文和艾玛 · 韦奇伍德在梅尔举行了英国圣公会为一神教举行的婚礼，然后立即赶上了去伦敦和他们新家的火车。 By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected", thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory". He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding. On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife. While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin 1842年，达尔文和他的长子，[威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文] On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home. Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. 达尔文现在有了自然选择理论的框架，他的研究包括广泛的动植物实验人工选择，发现物种不固定的证据，并调查许多详细的想法来完善和证实他的理论。 Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species". 菲茨罗伊的《叙述》在1839年5月出版时，达尔文的《日记与评论》获得了巨大的成功，成为当年晚些时候出版的第三卷。早在1842年，达尔文就他的想法写给查尔斯 · 莱尔，莱尔指出他的盟友“否认看到每一种物种的开始”。 Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection. To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September. On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder". Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject." 经过三年多的研究，达尔文的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书于1842年5月出版，这本书是关于他的珊瑚礁形成理论的。为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人在九月份搬到了乡下的唐人街。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克提到了他的理论，他以戏剧性的幽默写道: “这就像承认谋杀一样。”。胡克回答说: “在我看来，可能在不同的地点有一系列的产品，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到你认为这种变化是如何发生的，因为目前我对这个问题还没有什么看法。” Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, and in particular, the barnacles. Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House was his usual "Thinking Path". 达尔文在[ Down House 是他惯用的“思考之路”]的“沙行” When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species". By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists. 到了7月，达尔文已经把他的“草图”扩展成了一篇230页的“论文” ，如果他过早地死去，他的研究成果将会被扩展。11月，匿名出版的轰动一时的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹引起了人们对蜕变的广泛兴趣。达尔文对其业余的地质学和动物学嗤之以鼻，但仔细审查了自己的论点。争论爆发了，尽管被科学家轻蔑地驳回，它仍然卖得很好。 Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection. To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September. On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder". Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject." Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation. 达尔文在1846年完成了他的第三本地质学著作。现在，他对海洋无脊椎动物又有了新的兴趣和专长，可以追溯到他和格兰特一起上学的时候，他解剖和分类航行中收集的藤壶，欣赏美丽的结构，思考与相关结构的比较。1847年，胡克阅读了《论文》 ，并给达尔文提供了他所需要的冷静的批评性反馈，但他不愿承诺，并质疑达尔文反对继续创造行为的立场。 Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House was his usual "Thinking Path". In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died. 为了改善慢性病的健康状况，达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯 · 格利医生位于莫尔文的水疗中心，他惊奇地发现水疗有一些好处。后来，在1851年，他的宝贝女儿安妮病倒了，再次唤醒了他的恐惧，他担心他的病可能是遗传性的，在一系列的危机之后，安妮去世了。 By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists. In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist. In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library. He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature". 在八年的藤壶(Cirripedia)研究工作中，达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性” ，表明身体部位略有改变，为了适应新的环境，发挥了不同的功能。在一些属中，他发现了微小的雄性寄生在雌雄同体上，显示了不同性别进化的中间阶段。1853年，它为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章，并使他成为享有盛誉的生物学家。1854年，他成为伦敦林奈学会图书馆的会员，通过邮政途径进入图书馆。他开始重新评估自己的物种理论，并在11月意识到后代性格的差异可以解释为他们适应了“自然经济中的多样化地方”。 Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation. In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died. Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising." 查尔斯 · 达尔文，1855年46岁，当时正致力于发表他的[自然选择]理论。他在给胡克的信中谈到了这幅肖像画，“如果我的表情真像照片上那样糟糕，我怎么会只有一个朋友呢? ”] By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you." 1856年初，达尔文开始研究卵子和种子是否能够通过海水传播到大洋中，从而存活下来。胡克越来越怀疑物种是固定不变的传统观点，但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫胥黎仍然坚决反对物种的变异。莱尔被达尔文的猜测所吸引，却没有意识到其程度。当他读到阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士的一篇论文《论规范新物种引进的法则》时，他发现了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他出版论文以建立优先顺序。虽然达尔文没有看到威胁，但1856年5月14日他开始写一篇短文。为了找到难题的答案，他反复地坚持着，并且他扩展了自己的计划，写了一本名为《自然选择》的“物种大书” ，其中包括了他的“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士在内的世界各地的自然学家那里获得信息和标本。在1857年中期，他增加了一个章节标题: “理论应用于人类种族” ，但没有添加关于这个主题的文本。1857年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨 · 格雷提交了一份详细的自然选择理论纲要，其中包括一份省略了人类起源和性选择的自然选择理论摘要。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的一封信，询问这本书是否会考察人类起源。他回应说，他会回避这个话题，“这么多偏见” ，同时鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说，“我比你走得更远。” In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist. In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library. He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature". Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace, and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend. 1858年6月18日，达尔文收到了华莱士关于自然选择的论文，他的书只写了一部分。达尔文对自己被“抢先”一步感到震惊，于是按照华莱士的要求，在当天把这本书寄给了莱尔。尽管华莱士没有要求出版，达尔文还是建议他把这本书寄给华莱士选择的任何一家期刊。他的家庭陷入了危机，村里的孩子死于猩红热，他把这件事交给了他的朋友们。经过一些讨论，由于没有可靠的方式让华莱士、莱尔和胡克参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林奈学会联合发表《物种形成多样性的趋势》和《通过自然选择的方法使多样性和物种永久化》。6月28日晚，达尔文的婴儿儿子在几乎一个星期的严重疾病之后死于猩红热，他心烦意乱无法出席。 Publication of the theory of natural selection There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray. 很少有人立即注意到这一理论的宣布; 林奈学会主席在1859年5月说，这一年没有任何革命性的发现。只有一篇评论激怒了达尔文，让他后来回忆起来; 都柏林的塞缪尔 · 豪顿教授声称“他们所有新的东西都是假的，真的东西都是旧的”。达尔文挣扎了13个月才写出了他的“大书”的摘要，他身体不好，但他的科学朋友不断地鼓励他。莱尔安排约翰 · 默里出版这本书。 Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising." By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you." On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859. In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections. In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals. Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races. He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." His theory is simply stated in the introduction: 1859年11月22日，《物种起源书出人意料地大受欢迎，全部1250本书获得超额认购。在这本书中，达尔文提出了“一个长的论点”的详细的观察，推论和考虑预期的反对意见。为了证明共同血统，他包括了人类和其他哺乳动物之间同源性的证据。在概述了性选择之后，他暗示性选择可以解释人类种族之间的差异。他避免明确讨论人类起源，但暗示了他的工作的意义与句子: “光将投掷在人类的起源和他的历史。”他的理论在导言中简单地陈述了: Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace, and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend. At the end of the book he concluded that: 在这本书的结尾，他总结道: There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray. On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859. In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections. In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.模板:Sfn模板:Ref label Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races.模板:Ref label He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."模板:Ref label His theory is simply stated in the introduction: The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species. 在这本书的前五版中，最后一个词是“进化”的唯一变体。当时的进化论与其他概念有关，最常见的是与胚胎学的发展有关，达尔文在1871年第一次使用进化这个词，然后在1872年将其添加到第六版《人类的由来物种起源。 As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. At the end of the book he concluded that: During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866. 在1868年达尔文家族在她家度假期间怀特岛的别墅，朱莉娅·玛格丽特·卡梅伦拍摄的肖像显示浓密的胡须达尔文生长在1862年和1866年之间。 There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. An 1871 caricature following publication of [[The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory. Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide. The book did not explicitly discuss human origins, The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers. Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin, but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea. 一幅1871年的漫画出版后[[人类的由来是典型的许多显示与猿的身体，确定他在流行文化作为主要作者的进化论达尔文。虽然达尔文的疾病使他远离公共辩论，他热切地审查科学的反应，评论新闻剪报，评论，文章，讽刺和漫画，并与世界各地的同事就此通信。这本书没有明确地讨论人类的起源，第一篇评论问道: “如果一只猴子已经变成了一个人——什么不可能变成一个人? ”并说这应该留给神学家，因为这对普通读者来说太危险了。在早期的积极回应中，赫胥黎的评论抨击了赫胥黎试图推翻的科学机构领袖理查德 · 欧文。今年四月，欧文的评论攻击了达尔文的朋友，并且居高临下地驳斥了他的观点，这激怒了达尔文，但是欧文和其他人开始提倡超自然引导进化论的观点。帕特里克 · 马修引起了人们对他1831年的书的注意，书中有一个简短的附录，提出了自然选择导致新物种的概念，但他还没有发展出这个想法。 The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species. The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology. The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion. 英国国教会的反应褒贬不一。但是自由派的神职人员将自然选择理解为上帝设计的工具，神职人员认为自然选择是查尔斯·金斯莱的崇高理念。1860年，七位自由主义的英国圣公会神学家出版了《论文与评论》 ，转移了神职人员对达尔文的注意力，其思想包括更高层次的批评被教会当局斥为异端。在书中，贝登鲍威尔认为奇迹破坏了上帝的法则，因此相信奇迹是无神论的，并赞扬“达尔文先生精湛的卷本，支持自然界自我进化力量的伟大原则”。阿萨 · 格雷与达尔文讨论了目的论，达尔文引进并分发了格雷关于神导演化论的小册子《自然选择并非与自然神学不一致。其中最著名的对抗发生在牛津大辩论的一次公共英国科学协会会议上，牛津塞缪尔·韦伯佛斯的主教虽然不反对物种变异，但反对达尔文的解释和人类起源于猿类的说法。约瑟夫 · 胡克强烈支持达尔文，而托马斯 · 赫胥黎则反驳说，他宁愿从猿类进化而来，也不愿意成为滥用自己天赋的人，这象征着科学对宗教的胜利。 Responses to publication Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education, 甚至达尔文的密友格雷、胡克、赫胥黎和莱尔也表达了各种保留意见，但给予了强烈支持，其他许多人也是如此，特别是年轻的博物学家。格雷和莱尔寻求与信仰的和解，而赫胥黎描绘了宗教和科学之间的两极分化。他在竞选中顽强地反对神职人员的教育权威, During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866. An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory. Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection. Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864. That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas". By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection. 达尔文主义成为一场涵盖了广泛的进化论思想的运动。1863年，莱尔的《人类古代的地质证据》一书使史前史广为流传，尽管他对进化论的谨慎态度令达尔文大失所望。几个星期后，赫胥黎的《人类在自然界的地位证据》表明，从解剖学角度来看，人类就是猿类，然后，亨利·沃尔特·贝兹的《亚马逊河上的博物学家》为自然选择提供了经验证明。游说给达尔文带来了英国最高的科学荣誉，皇家学会的科普利奖章，该奖章于1864年11月3日颁发。那一天，赫胥黎举行了第一次会议，后来成为有影响力的“ x 俱乐部” ，致力于“科学，纯粹和自由，不受宗教教条的限制”。十年后，大多数科学家都同意进化论确实存在，但只有少数科学家支持达尔文的观点，认为主要的机制是自然选择。 The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide. The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,模板:Ref label but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made. The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers. Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin, but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea. The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture. Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism. 物种起源》被翻译成多种语言，成为一本主要的科学著作，吸引了各行各业深思熟虑的注意力，包括蜂拥而至参加赫胥黎讲座的“劳动人民”。达尔文的理论也与当时的各种运动产生了共鸣，并成为流行文化的一个重要组成部分。漫画家模仿动物祖先的传统，展示人类与动物的特征，在英国，这些滑稽的图像服务于普及达尔文的理论在一个没有威胁的方式。1862年生病时，达尔文开始蓄胡须，1866年，当他再次出现在公众面前时，他作为一个猿人的漫画帮助确定了所有形式的进化论与达尔文主义。 The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology. The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion. By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness. 到了1878年，一个越来越有名的达尔文患病多年。 Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education, aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen. Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson 查尔斯 · 达尔文给[约翰 · 伯顿-桑德森]的信 Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection. Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864. That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas". By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection. Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies. 尽管在他生命的最后二十二年里反复发病，达尔文的工作仍在继续。在出版了他的理论的物种起源一年的摘要之后，他继续进行实验，研究，并写下了他的“大书”。他涵盖了人类从早期动物的进化，包括社会和心智能力的进化，以及解释野生动物的装饰美和多样化进入创新的植物研究。 The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time模板:Ref label and became a key fixture of popular culture.模板:Ref label Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism. Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants. Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism. Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism. 对昆虫授粉的调查在1861年引发了对野生兰花的新研究，显示了它们的花适应性，以吸引特定的蛾子到每个品种，并确保交叉受精。1862年，《兰花受精》第一次详细展示了自然选择的力量，用以解释复杂的生态关系，并作出了可检验的预测。随着他的健康状况日益恶化，他躺在病床上，房间里摆满了创造性的实验品，用来追踪攀缘植物的活动轨迹。欣赏他的游客包括恩斯特 · 海克尔，他是达尔文主义的狂热支持者，结合了拉马克主义和歌德的理想主义。华莱士仍然支持，尽管他逐渐转向唯心论。 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness. Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime. 达尔文的《动物和植物在家养下的变异(1868年)是他计划好的“大书”的第一部分，其中包括他试图解释遗传的泛生论的失败假说。尽管规模庞大，但它一开始销路很好，并被翻译成多种语言。他写了第二部分的大部分，关于自然选择，但在他有生之年，这部分一直没有出版。 Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson See also: Orchids to Variation, Descent of Man to Emotions, and Insectivorous Plants to Worms Punchs almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.]] 1882年出版的 Punchs 年鉴，在达尔文去世前不久出版，描述了他从混乱到维多利亚绅士的进化过程，书名是《人不过是一条虫》 Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes. His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked." His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin." 莱尔已经普及了史前人类，赫胥黎也证明了解剖学上的人类是猿类。他在1872年出版的《人与动物的情感表达》一书中扩展了他对图像的研究，这本书是第一批以印刷照片为特色的书籍之一，其中讨论了人类心理学的进化及其与动物行为的连续性。事实证明，这两本书都很受欢迎，达尔文的观点得到普遍认可，这给他留下了深刻印象，他说: “每个人都在谈论这本书，却不感到震惊。”他的结论是: “这个人拥有所有的高尚品质，对最卑贱的人怀有同情之心，他的仁慈不仅延伸到其他人身上，而且延伸到最卑微的生物身上，他那神一般的智慧渗透到太阳系的运动和构造之中ーー具有所有这些崇高的力量ーー人的身体结构仍然带有他卑微出身的不可磨灭的印记。” Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies. His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work. His botanical work was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. 他的进化相关的实验和调查导致了关于兰花的书籍，食虫植物，植物王国的交叉和自体受精的影响，不同形式的花对同一物种的植物，以及植物运动的力量。他继续从世界各地的科学记者那里收集信息和交换意见，包括玛丽 · 特莱特，他鼓励她坚持她的科学工作。他的植物学著作在19世纪末20世纪初被 Grant Allen 和 h. g. Wells 等不同的作家解读和普及，并且[ http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract?frompage=online&aid=10359900&fulltexttype=ra&fileid=s0007087416000352帮助改变了植物科学]。在他的最后一本书中，他回到了通过蠕虫的行动蔬菜霉菌的形成。 Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants. Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism. Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism. Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime. Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster Abbey 约翰 · 赫歇尔和查尔斯 · 达尔文墓。[西敏寺] Punch模板:'s almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm. In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure". It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic Chagas disease. This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "Kissing Bug" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835; and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries. 1882年，他被诊断出患有所谓的“心绞痛” ，这意味着冠状动脉血栓和心脏病。在他去世时，医生诊断为“心绞痛发作”和“心力衰竭”。据推测，达尔文可能患有慢性恰加斯病。这种推测是基于达尔文写的一篇日志，描述他于1835年在门多萨被“接吻虫”咬伤，以及他表现出的一系列临床症状，包括慢性恰加斯病的标志性心脏病。在公众和议会的请愿之后，William Spottiswoode (皇家学会主席)安排了达尔文的葬礼，葬在西敏寺，靠近 John Herschel 和 Isaac Newton 的地方。葬礼于4月26日星期三举行，参加葬礼的有数千人，包括家人、朋友、科学家、哲学家和政要。 Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes. With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial classification, while emphasising that humans are all one species. His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked." His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin." His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work. His botanical work模板:Ref label was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms. John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]] 伦敦国家肖像馆学院的 John Collier Death and funeral By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species. Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician, finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. He gave the theory a mathematical footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory. 到达尔文去世的时候，他和他的同事已经说服了大多数科学家相信进化论是通过修改的后裔是正确的，他被认为是一个伟大的科学家，彻底改变了思想。1909年6月，尽管当时很少有人同意他的观点，认为“自然选择是主要的但不是唯一的改造方式” ，但是来自世界各地的400多名官员和科学家在剑桥会面，纪念他的百年诞辰和物种起源50周年，向他表示敬意。20世纪初，科学家们提出了各种各样的进化机制，这些机制最终被证明是站不住脚的。英国统计学家 Ronald Fisher 在1918年和他1930年出版的《自然选择的遗传理论期间，最终将孟德尔遗传学和自然选择结合起来。他给这个理论提供了数学基础，并且带来了广泛的科学共识---- 自然选择是进化的基本机制，从而奠定了群体遗传学和现代进化综论的基础。霍尔丹和塞沃尔 · 赖特，他们为现代的辩论和理论的完善设定了参照系。附近的安第斯山脉的达尔文山被命名以庆祝达尔文的25岁生日。1839年，当贝格尔号考察澳大利亚时，达尔文的朋友约翰 · 洛特 · 斯托克斯发现了一个天然港口，船长威克姆将其命名为达尔文港: 附近的一个定居点在1911年被重新命名为达尔文，并成为澳大利亚北领地的首府。 See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster Abbey Unveiling of the Darwin Statue outside the former Shrewsbury School building in 1897 1897年，达尔文雕像在前什鲁斯伯里学校大楼外揭幕 In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure". It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic Chagas disease. This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "Kissing Bug" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835; and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease. Exhuming Darwin's body is likely necessary to definitively determine his state of infection by detecting DNA of infecting parasite, T. cruzi, that causes Chagas disease. Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University, is named after the Darwin family. 达尔文学院是剑桥大学的一所研究生院，以达尔文家族的名字命名。 He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you". He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries. In 2008–09, the Swedish band The Knife, in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and The Origin of Species, titled Tomorrow, in a Year. The show toured European theatres in 2010. 2008-09年，瑞典乐队 The Knife 与丹麦表演团体 Hotel Pro Forma 以及其他来自丹麦、瑞典和美国的音乐家合作，创作了一部关于达尔文和物种起源生平的歌剧，名为《一年中的明天》。该剧于2010年在欧洲剧院巡回演出。 Legacy In 1881 Darwin was an eminent figure, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect on many fields of science. Copy of a portrait by John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery, London. {

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• Creation (biographical drama film)

| last =Anonymous

| last = Anonymous

| year =1882

1882年

Notes

| title =Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin

讣告: 查斯之死。达尔文

| first = Peter J.

第一，彼得 j。

| year = 2003

2003年

Citations

| title = Evolution: The History of an Idea

进化: 思想的历史

| edition = 3rd

3 rd

| publisher = University of California Press

加利福尼亚大学出版社

References

| isbn = 978-0-520-23693-6

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