863
个编辑
更改
跳到导航
跳到搜索
第1行：
第1行： − 本词条由Agnes初步翻译。已由和光同尘审校 + + + + − − '''Social influence''' comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in [[conformity]], [[socialization]], [[peer pressure]], [[obedience (human behavior)|obedience]], [[leadership]], [[persuasion]], [[sales]], and [[marketing]]. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist [[Herbert Kelman]] identified three broad varieties of social influence.<ref name="Kelman">{{cite journal|author=Kelman, H.|year=1958|title=Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=2|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1177/002200275800200106|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf}}</ref> − − Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence. − − − − − #'''[[Compliance (psychology)|Compliance]]''' is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private. − − Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private. − − − #'''[[Identification (psychology)|Identification]]''' is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity. − − Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity. − − − − #'''[[Internalisation (sociology)|Internalization]]''' is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately. − − Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately. − − − − Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological [[need]]s that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right ([[informational social influence]]) and our need to be liked ([[normative social influence]]).<ref name="Gerard">{{cite journal|author1=Deutsch, M.|author2=Gerard, H. B.|name-list-style=amp|year=1955|title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment|journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=629–636|pmid=13286010|doi=10.1037/h0046408|url=http://web.comhem.se/u52239948/08/deutsch55.pdf}}</ref> Informational influence (or ''social proof'') is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.<ref name=Kelman /> − − Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority. − ==[[用户:Agnes|Agnes]]（[[用户讨论:Agnes|讨论]]） [翻译]punishment-aversion存疑，故省译 − ==[[用户:和光同尘|和光同尘]]([[用户讨论:和光同尘|讨论]]) [翻译]loss aversion为损失厌恶，risk aversion为风险厌恶，所以punishment-aversion可以翻译为惩罚厌恶 − − ==Types== − − 类型 − − Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of [[social psychology]]. For more information, follow the main article links provided. + − + − − Kelman的分类 − − There are three processes of [[attitude change]] as defined by Harvard psychologist [[Herbert Kelman]] in a 1958 paper published in the ''Journal of Conflict Resolution''.<ref name="Kelman" /> The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief). − − There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the ''Journal of Conflict Resolution''. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief). − + − − 顺从 − − {{Main article|Compliance (psychology)}} − − Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in [[behavior]] but not necessarily in [[Attitude (psychology)|attitude]]; one can comply due to mere [[Obedience (human behavior)|obedience]] or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures.<ref name="Aronson">Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.</ref> According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).<ref name="Kelman" /> − − Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). − + − − 认同 − − Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The Milgram experiment, Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment, and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures. − − {{Main article|Identification (psychology)}} − − Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. [[Advertisements]] that rely upon [[celebrities|celebrity]] endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.<ref name="Kelman" /> − − Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change. − + − − 内化 − − {{Main article|Internalization}} − − Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".<ref name="Kelman" /> − − Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior". − − {{Main article|Psychological manipulation}} − − Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or [[perception]] of others through [[abuse|abusive]], [[deceptive]], or underhanded tactics.<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref> By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. − − Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. − + − − 从众 − {{Main article|Conformity}} − − Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. [[Social psychology]] research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: [[informational social influence|informational conformity]] (also called ''social proof'', or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and [[normative social influence|normative conformity]] ("compliance" in Kelman's terms).<ref name="Aronson" /> − − Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called ''social proof'', or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms). − − Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. − − − − In the case of [[peer pressure]], a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking [[illegal drugs]]) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] with other people (such as their [[friend]]s). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others. − − In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others. − + − − 少数影响 − − Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. − − {{Main article|Minority influence}} − − Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).<ref name="Moscovici">Moscovici, S. and Nemeth (1974) Minority influence. In C. Nemetn (ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations (pp. 217–249), Chicago:Rand McNally</ref> Minority influence most often operates through [[informational social influence]] (as opposed to [[normative social influence]]) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Wood, W.|author2=Lundgren, S.|author3=Ouellette, J.|author4=Busceme, S.|author5=Blackstone, T.|year=1994|name-list-style=amp|title=Minority Influence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Social Influence Processes|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=115|number=3|pages=323–345|pmid=8016284|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.323}}</ref> − − Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority. − + − − 自证预言 − − Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. − − {{Main article|Self-fulfilling prophecy}} − − A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between [[belief]] and [[behavior]]. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false prophecy. This term is credited to [[sociologist]] [[Robert K. Merton]] from an article he published in 1948. − − − − A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948. − − − | last = Merton − − | first = Robert K. − − − Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history. − | title = The Self Fulfilling Prophecy+ − − | journal = Antioch Review − − | volume = 8 − − | year = 1948 − − | issue = 2 (Summer) − − | pages = 193–210 − − | jstor = 4609267 − − Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader: − − 罗伯特•恰尔迪尼 Robert Cialdini 定义了六种“影响力武器” ，它们可以强化一个人被说服者影响的倾向: − − | doi=10.2307/4609267 − − }}</ref> − − − − ===Reactance=== − − − − {{Main article|Reactance (psychology)}} − − Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called ''[[Anticonformity (psychology)|anticonformity]]''. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of [[social pressure]].<ref name="Brehm">Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press</ref> It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean ''independence''. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.<ref name="Frager">{{cite journal | last1 = Frager | first1 = R | year = 1970 | title = Conformity and anti-conformity in Japan | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 203–210 | doi=10.1037/h0029434}}</ref> − − Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called ''anticonformity''. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure. It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean ''independence''. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct. − + − − 服从 − − {{Main article|Obedience (human behavior)}} − − Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks. − − Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The [[Milgram experiment]], Zimbardo's [[Stanford prison experiment]], and the [[Hofling hospital experiment]] are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures. − + − − 说服 − − {{Main article|Persuasion}} − − [[persuasion]] is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. [[Robert Cialdini]] defined six "weapons of influence": [[norm of reciprocity|reciprocity]], commitment, [[social proof]], [[authority]], liking, and [[scarcity]]. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through [[Reason|appeals to reason]] or [[Appeal to emotion|appeals to emotion]].<ref name="Cialdini">Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). ''Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.)''. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. {{ISBN|0-321-01147-3}}</ref> − − Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion. − − Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility, a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase the tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink. Appeals to authority may especially affect norms of obedience. The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority. 第246行：
第81行： − + − − 心理控制 − − Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit." Likewise, celebrities don't usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status. − − Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with the suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children. − − − − Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to [[persuade]] patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. − + − − 滥用权力和控制权 − − Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France. This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past. − − {{Main article|Abusive power and control}} − − Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and [[intimidate]] the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.<ref name="Cory p. 30">Jill Cory; Karen McAndless-Davis. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBFdlUnxmkkC&pg=PA30 When Love Hurts: A Woman's Guide to Understanding Abuse in Relationships]''. WomanKind Press; 1 January 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-9686016-0-0}}. p. 30.</ref> − − Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and [[intimidate]] the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. − + − − 宣传 − − Emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity. − − {{Main article|Propaganda}} − − Propaganda is information that is not [[Objectivity (journalism)|objective]] and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using [[loaded language]] to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.<ref name="brit_BLS">{{cite web | last = Smith | first = Bruce L. | author-link = Bruce Lannes Smith | title = Propaganda | website = britannica.com | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | date = 17 February 2016 | url = http://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda | access-date = 23 April 2016 }}</ref> − − Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. − + − − − − {{Main article|Hard power}} − − Hard power is the use of [[military]] and [[economics|economic]] means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of [[political power]] is often aggressive ([[coercion]]), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or [[economic power]].<ref name=hard>{{cite web|title=Hard Power Vs. Soft Power|url=http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|publisher=The Mark|accessdate=26 April 2012|author=Daryl Copeland|date=Feb 2, 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501050956/http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|archivedate=1 May 2012}}</ref> Hard power contrasts with [[soft power]], which comes from [[diplomacy]], [[culture]] and [[history]].<ref name=hard/> − − Hard power is the use of militaryand economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history. − − A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness. − + − − − − 前身 − − Identifying the extent of social influence, based on large-scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to US presidential elections, stock markets, and civil unrest. − − Many factors can affect the impact of social influence. − − However, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data. − + − − − − {{Main article|Social impact theory}} − − Social impact theory was developed by [[Bibb Latané]] in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Latané | first1 = B | year = 1981 | title = The psychology of social impact | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.36.4.343 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 343–356 }}</ref> − − Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence: − − *''Strength'': The importance of the influencing group to the individual − − *''Immediacy'': Physical (and temporal) proximity of the influencing group to the individual at the time of the influence attempt − − *''Number'': The number of people in the group − − As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of Influence is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators. − + − − − − {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| − − {{ Columns-list | colwidth = 22em | − − [[Robert Cialdini]] defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:<ref name="Cialdini" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://conceptually.org/concepts/6-principles-of-influence/ |title=What are the 6 principles of influence? |website=conceptually.org |access-date= October 25, 2017}}</ref> − − Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader: − ： − − *[[norm of reciprocity|Reciprocity]]: People tend to return a favor. − − * Reciprocity: People tend to return a favor. − − *[[Promise|Commitment]] and [[consistency]]: People do not like to be self-contradictory. Once they commit to an idea or behavior, they are averse to changing their minds without good reason. − − * Commitment and consistency: People do not like to be self-contradictory. Once they commit to an idea or behavior, they are averse to changing their minds without good reason. − − *[[Social proof]]: People will be more open to things that they see others doing. For example, seeing others compost their organic waste after finishing a meal may influence the subject to do so as well.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sussman, R.|author2=Gifford, R.|name-list-style=amp|year=2013|title=Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places|journal=Environment & Behavior|volume=45|issue=3|pages=323–343|doi=10.1177/0013916511431274|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0de18b4adf6b128027a3f4c0bc8d757426f20421}}</ref> − − * Social proof: People will be more open to things that they see others doing. For example, seeing others compost their organic waste after finishing a meal may influence the subject to do so as well. − − *[[Authority]]: People will tend to obey authority figures. − − * Authority: People will tend to obey authority figures. − − }} − − }} − − *Liking: People are more easily swayed by people they like. − − * Liking: People are more easily swayed by people they like. − − *[[Scarcity]]: A perceived limitation of resources will generate demand. − − * Scarcity: A perceived limitation of resources will generate demand. − + − − − − Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of [[Milgram experiment|obedience experiments]], 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.<ref name=ObedStudy>{{cite journal|last=Milgram |first=Stanley |year=1963 |title=Behavioral Study of Obedience |journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |pmid=14049516 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120717013242/http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-17 |doi=10.1037/h0040525 |citeseerx=10.1.1.599.92 }} [http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf Full-text PDF.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611105753/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf |date=June 11, 2011 }}</ref> − − Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks. − === Status === − 地位+ + + − {{Main article|Appeal to authority}}+ − − Category:Social status − − 类别: 社会地位 − − {{See also|Reputation}} − − <noinclude> − − <small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Social influence]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[社会影响/edithistory]]</small></noinclude> − − − − ==编者推荐== − + +
无编辑摘要
{{#seo:
|keywords=社会地位,社会影响
|description=社会地位,社会影响
}}
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会影响 Social influence</font>'''由个人为了满足社会环境的需求而改变其行为的多种方式构成。它有多种形式，存在于'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众行为 conformity</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会化 socialization</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 服从 obedience</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 领导力 leadership</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 说服 persuasion</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">销售 sales </font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">营销 marketing</font>'''之中。一般来说，虽然社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特·凯尔曼 Herbert Kelman确定了三种具有广泛意义的社会影响。<ref name="Kelman">{{cite journal|author=Kelman, H.|year=1958|title=Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=2|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1177/002200275800200106|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf}}</ref>
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会影响 Social influence</font>'''由个人为了满足社会环境的需求而改变其行为的多种方式构成。它有多种形式，存在于'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众行为 conformity</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会化 socialization</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 服从 obedience</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 领导力 leadership</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 说服 persuasion</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">销售 sales </font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">营销 marketing</font>'''之中。一般来说，虽然社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特·凯尔曼 Herbert Kelman确定了三种具有广泛意义的社会影响。<ref name="Kelman">{{cite journal|author=Kelman, H.|year=1958|title=Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=2|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1177/002200275800200106|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf}}</ref>
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 顺从 Compliance</font>'''是指人们表面上同意他人的意见，但实际上却持有隐秘的反对态度。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 顺从 Compliance</font>'''是指人们表面上同意他人的意见，但实际上却持有隐秘的反对态度。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 认同 Identification</font>'''是指人们受到某个名人等受人喜爱和尊敬的人影响。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 认同 Identification</font>'''是指人们受到某个名人等受人喜爱和尊敬的人影响。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 内化 Internalization</font>'''是指人们接纳一种信仰或行为，并且不论在公开场合还是私人场合都始终如一地遵守它们。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 内化 Internalization</font>'''是指人们接纳一种信仰或行为，并且不论在公开场合还是私人场合都始终如一地遵守它们。
莫顿·多伊奇 Morton Deutsch和哈罗德·杰拉德 Harold Gerard描述了导致人们迎合他人期望的两种心理需求。这两种需求包括：我们对保持正确的需求(信息社会影响)和我们想受喜欢的需求(规范的社会影响) <ref name="Gerard">{{cite journal|author1=Deutsch, M.|author2=Gerard, H. B.|name-list-style=amp|year=1955|title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment|journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=629–636|pmid=13286010|doi=10.1037/h0046408|url=http://web.comhem.se/u52239948/08/deutsch55.pdf}}</ref>。信息影响(或社会证明)是指接受他人信息作为现实证据的影响。当人们不确定的时候，信息影响就会发挥作用，这要么是因为刺激本身就是模棱两可的，要么是因为存在社会分歧。规范性影响是一种迎合他人积极期望的影响。在Kelman的类型学中，规范性影响会导致公众顺从，而信息性影响会导致私下接受。根据Kelman1958年的论文，从顺从中获得的满足感来自于接受影响的社会效应(即人们因预期奖励和惩罚厌恶而顺从)。少数群体的影响通常是通过信息社会影响(而不是规范社会影响)发挥作用的，因为多数群体可能并不关心少数群体的喜好<ref name=Kelman />
莫顿·多伊奇 Morton Deutsch和哈罗德·杰拉德 Harold Gerard描述了导致人们迎合他人期望的两种心理需求。这两种需求包括：我们对保持正确的需求(信息社会影响)和我们想受喜欢的需求(规范的社会影响) <ref name="Gerard">{{cite journal|author1=Deutsch, M.|author2=Gerard, H. B.|name-list-style=amp|year=1955|title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment|journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=629–636|pmid=13286010|doi=10.1037/h0046408|url=http://web.comhem.se/u52239948/08/deutsch55.pdf}}</ref>。信息影响(或社会证明)是指接受他人信息作为现实证据的影响。当人们不确定的时候，信息影响就会发挥作用，这要么是因为刺激本身就是模棱两可的，要么是因为存在社会分歧。规范性影响是一种迎合他人积极期望的影响。在Kelman的类型学中，规范性影响会导致公众顺从，而信息性影响会导致私下接受。根据Kelman1958年的论文，从顺从中获得的满足感来自于接受影响的社会效应(即人们因预期奖励和惩罚厌恶而顺从)。少数群体的影响通常是通过信息社会影响(而不是规范社会影响)发挥作用的，因为多数群体可能并不关心少数群体的喜好<ref name=Kelman />
。
。
==类型==
社会影响是一个宽泛的概念，与很多现象都有关。以下列出的几种是'''<font color="#ff8000">社会心理学 social psychology</font>'''领域研究的几种主要社会影响。如需获取更多相关信息，请点击提供的主要文章链接。
社会影响是一个宽泛的概念，与很多现象都有关。以下列出的几种是'''<font color="#ff8000">社会心理学 social psychology</font>'''领域研究的几种主要社会影响。如需获取更多相关信息，请点击提供的主要文章链接。
===Kelman's varieties===
===Kelman的分类===
哈佛大学心理学家Herbert Kelman 1958年发表在《冲突解决学报》<ref name="Kelman" />上的论文中定义了'''<font color="#ff8000">态度转变 attitude change </font>'''的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是帮助确定社会影响的作用：例如，将公众的服从（行为）与私人的接受（个人信仰）分开。
哈佛大学心理学家Herbert Kelman 1958年发表在《冲突解决学报》<ref name="Kelman" />上的论文中定义了'''<font color="#ff8000">态度转变 attitude change </font>'''的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是帮助确定社会影响的作用：例如，将公众的服从（行为）与私人的接受（个人信仰）分开。
====Compliance====
==== 顺从 ====
顺从是对他人提出的或明确或隐含的请求做出积极响应的行为。严格来说，顺从是行为的改变，但不一定是态度的改变。 一个人可以仅仅为了顺从而顺从，也可以因为社会压力而选择隐瞒个人想法<ref name="Aronson">Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.</ref>。 根据Kelman1958年发表的论文，之所以会从顺从中获得满足感，是因为人接受了影响力的社会影响（即人们因预期奖励和惩罚厌恶而顺从）<ref name="Kelman" />。
顺从是对他人提出的或明确或隐含的请求做出积极响应的行为。严格来说，顺从是行为的改变，但不一定是态度的改变。 一个人可以仅仅为了顺从而顺从，也可以因为社会压力而选择隐瞒个人想法<ref name="Aronson">Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.</ref>。 根据Kelman1958年发表的论文，之所以会从顺从中获得满足感，是因为人接受了影响力的社会影响（即人们因预期奖励和惩罚厌恶而顺从）<ref name="Kelman" />。
====Identification====
====认同====
服从是一种来自权威人物的社会影响力。米尔格拉姆实验、津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验和霍夫林医院的实验是3个特别著名的关于服从的实验。他们都得出结论，当人类感知到合法权威人物出现时，他们在其面前会出奇地顺从。
服从是一种来自权威人物的社会影响力。米尔格拉姆实验、津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验和霍夫林医院的实验是3个特别著名的关于服从的实验。他们都得出结论，当人类感知到合法权威人物出现时，他们在其面前会出奇地顺从。
'''<font color="#ff8000">认同 identification </font>'''是指受为人所敬佩者的影响而改变了态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这种现象。根据Kelman的观点，认同者所期待的关系与行为或态度的变化相关<ref name="Kelman" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000">认同 identification </font>'''是指受为人所敬佩者的影响而改变了态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这种现象。根据Kelman的观点，认同者所期待的关系与行为或态度的变化相关<ref name="Kelman" />。
====Internalization====
====内化====
'''<font color="#ff8000">内化 internalization </font>'''是对规范的接受过程，这组规范由人或对个人有影响力的组织制订。个人之所以接受这种影响是因为所接受影响的内容本质上是有益的。 它与个人的价值体系是一致的，根据Kelman的观点，内在化的“奖励”是“新行为的内容”<ref name="Kelman" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000">内化 internalization </font>'''是对规范的接受过程，这组规范由人或对个人有影响力的组织制订。个人之所以接受这种影响是因为所接受影响的内容本质上是有益的。 它与个人的价值体系是一致的，根据Kelman的观点，内在化的“奖励”是“新行为的内容”<ref name="Kelman" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000">心理操纵 psychological manipulation </font>'''是一种社会影响，旨在通过辱骂、欺骗或卑鄙的手段改变他人的行为或感知<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref>。这些方法通过促进操纵者的利益，经常以牺牲他人的利益为代价，常被认为具有剥削性、虐待性、狡猾和欺骗性。
'''<font color="#ff8000">心理操纵 psychological manipulation </font>'''是一种社会影响，旨在通过辱骂、欺骗或卑鄙的手段改变他人的行为或感知<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref>。这些方法通过促进操纵者的利益，经常以牺牲他人的利益为代价，常被认为具有剥削性、虐待性、狡猾和欺骗性。
===Conformity===
===从众===
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众 conformity </font>'''是一种社会影响，这种行为涉及行为，信念或思想变化或与他人或规范标准保持一致的想法。 它是社会影响力中最普遍的形式。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会心理学 social influence</font>'''关于从众的研究倾向于区分出两个变体：'''<font color="#ff8000"> 信息性从众 social psychology</font>'''（也称为“社会证明”，或用Kelman的术语称为“内在化”）和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 规范性从众 normative conformity</font>'''（用Kelman的术语称为“从众性”）<ref name="Aronson" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众 conformity </font>'''是一种社会影响，这种行为涉及行为，信念或思想变化或与他人或规范标准保持一致的想法。 它是社会影响力中最普遍的形式。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会心理学 social influence</font>'''关于从众的研究倾向于区分出两个变体：'''<font color="#ff8000"> 信息性从众 social psychology</font>'''（也称为“社会证明”，或用Kelman的术语称为“内在化”）和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 规范性从众 normative conformity</font>'''（用Kelman的术语称为“从众性”）<ref name="Aronson" />。
社会影响并不一定是负面的。例如，医生可以试图说服病人改变不健康的习惯。如果社会影响尊重受影响者接受或拒绝影响的权利，那么我们一般认为这种影响是无害的，而且不具有过分的强制性。社会影响根据其背景和动机可能构成秘密操纵。
社会影响并不一定是负面的。例如，医生可以试图说服病人改变不健康的习惯。如果社会影响尊重受影响者接受或拒绝影响的权利，那么我们一般认为这种影响是无害的，而且不具有过分的强制性。社会影响根据其背景和动机可能构成秘密操纵。
一个人在'''<font color="#ff8000">同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''下会被说服去做一些他们可能本来不想做的事情（例如服用违禁药品），仅仅因为这些行为在他们看来是与别人（比如朋友）保持积极关系所必须的。源于同辈压力的从众行为通常是与小组成员的认同感或为了安抚其他成员而顺从的结果。
一个人在'''<font color="#ff8000">同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''下会被说服去做一些他们可能本来不想做的事情（例如服用违禁药品），仅仅因为这些行为在他们看来是与别人（比如朋友）保持积极关系所必须的。源于同辈压力的从众行为通常是与小组成员的认同感或为了安抚其他成员而顺从的结果。
===Minority influence===
===少数影响===
控制型施虐者使用各种手段对受害者施加权力和控制。施虐者的目的是控制和恐吓受害者，或对他们施加影响让他们感觉在彼此的关系中没有平等的发言权。
控制型施虐者使用各种手段对受害者施加权力和控制。施虐者的目的是控制和恐吓受害者，或对他们施加影响让他们感觉在彼此的关系中没有平等的发言权。
少数影响指多数人受到少数人影响而接受其信仰或行为的情况。少数群体的影响力会受多数群体和少数群体的规模、少数群体的一致性程度以及情境因素（例如少数群体的富裕程度或社会重要性）的影响<ref name="Moscovici">Moscovici, S. and Nemeth (1974) Minority influence. In C. Nemetn (ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations (pp. 217–249), Chicago:Rand McNally</ref>。少数群体的影响力通常是通过信息社会影响力（而不是规范的社会影响力）来运作的，因为多数人可能对少数人的喜好无动于衷<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Wood, W.|author2=Lundgren, S.|author3=Ouellette, J.|author4=Busceme, S.|author5=Blackstone, T.|year=1994|name-list-style=amp|title=Minority Influence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Social Influence Processes|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=115|number=3|pages=323–345|pmid=8016284|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.323}}</ref>。
少数影响指多数人受到少数人影响而接受其信仰或行为的情况。少数群体的影响力会受多数群体和少数群体的规模、少数群体的一致性程度以及情境因素（例如少数群体的富裕程度或社会重要性）的影响<ref name="Moscovici">Moscovici, S. and Nemeth (1974) Minority influence. In C. Nemetn (ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations (pp. 217–249), Chicago:Rand McNally</ref>。少数群体的影响力通常是通过信息社会影响力（而不是规范的社会影响力）来运作的，因为多数人可能对少数人的喜好无动于衷<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Wood, W.|author2=Lundgren, S.|author3=Ouellette, J.|author4=Busceme, S.|author5=Blackstone, T.|year=1994|name-list-style=amp|title=Minority Influence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Social Influence Processes|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=115|number=3|pages=323–345|pmid=8016284|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.323}}</ref>。
===Self-fulfilling prophecy===
===自证预言===
'''<font color="#ff8000">宣传 propaganda</font>'''属于不客观的信息，主要用于影响受众和推动议程，通常是通过有选择地提出事实，以鼓励某种特定的合成或感知，或使用负载有特殊意义的语言激发情绪化的反应，而不是对所提供的信息的理性反应。
'''<font color="#ff8000">宣传 propaganda</font>'''属于不客观的信息，主要用于影响受众和推动议程，通常是通过有选择地提出事实，以鼓励某种特定的合成或感知，或使用负载有特殊意义的语言激发情绪化的反应，而不是对所提供的信息的理性反应。
自我实现的预测是一种通过信念和行为之间的正反馈而得以直接或间接实现的预测。一个宣布为真理的预言(实际上是假的)可以通过制造恐怖或混乱的逻辑来对人们造成巨大影响，以至于人们的反应最终让曾经的假预言得以实现。这个术语来自于社会学家罗伯特·金·莫顿 Robert K. Merton 1948年发表的一篇文章<ref name=SFP-48>{{Citation
自我实现的预测是一种通过信念和行为之间的正反馈而得以直接或间接实现的预测。一个宣布为真理的预言(实际上是假的)可以通过制造恐怖或混乱的逻辑来对人们造成巨大影响，以至于人们的反应最终让曾经的假预言得以实现。这个术语来自于社会学家罗伯特·金·莫顿 Robert K. Merton 1948年发表的一篇文章<ref name=SFP-48>{{Citation
'''<font color="#ff8000">硬实力 hard power </font>'''是通过军事和经济手段的运用来影响其他政治团体行为或利益。这种形式的政治权力往往是侵略性的(胁迫) ，当一个政治实体强加给另一个军事和/或经济实力较弱的实体时，这种形式的政治权力最为有效。来自外交、文化和历史的'''<font color="#ff8000">软实力 soft power </font>'''与硬实力形成了鲜明的对比。
'''<font color="#ff8000">硬实力 hard power </font>'''是通过军事和经济手段的运用来影响其他政治团体行为或利益。这种形式的政治权力往往是侵略性的(胁迫) ，当一个政治实体强加给另一个军事和/或经济实力较弱的实体时，这种形式的政治权力最为有效。来自外交、文化和历史的'''<font color="#ff8000">软实力 soft power </font>'''与硬实力形成了鲜明的对比。
===反抗===
反抗
'''<font color="#ff8000">反抗 reactance </font>'''是一个人采纳一种与他被迫接受观点相反的观点的行为，这种观点可能是由于此人的行为自由受到了威胁。这种现象也被称为“'''<font color="#ff8000">反顺从 anticonformity </font>'''”。虽然结果与影响者的预期相反，但这种反应是社会压力导致的<ref name="Brehm">Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press</ref>。值得注意的是，反顺从并不一定意味着独立。在许多研究中，反抗表现为对某种影响的刻意排斥，即使这种影响显然是正确的<ref name="Frager">{{cite journal | last1 = Frager | first1 = R | year = 1970 | title = Conformity and anti-conformity in Japan | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 203–210 | doi=10.1037/h0029434}}</ref>。
'''<font color="#ff8000">反抗 reactance </font>'''是一个人采纳一种与他被迫接受观点相反的观点的行为，这种观点可能是由于此人的行为自由受到了威胁。这种现象也被称为“'''<font color="#ff8000">反顺从 anticonformity </font>'''”。虽然结果与影响者的预期相反，但这种反应是社会压力导致的<ref name="Brehm">Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press</ref>。值得注意的是，反顺从并不一定意味着独立。在许多研究中，反抗表现为对某种影响的刻意排斥，即使这种影响显然是正确的<ref name="Frager">{{cite journal | last1 = Frager | first1 = R | year = 1970 | title = Conformity and anti-conformity in Japan | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 203–210 | doi=10.1037/h0029434}}</ref>。
===Obedience===
===服从===
当行凶的群体都忠诚地保持一致时，社会影响力是最强大的。即使是一个不同意见的例子也可能大大削弱影响力。例如，在米尔格拉姆 Milgram的第一组服从实验中，65% 的参与者服从假的权威人物对同伙实施“最大电击”。在Milgram实验的重复实验中，3个人实施电击（其中2个是同谋) ，一旦同谋中的一个不服从，只有10% 的受试者实施最大电击。
当行凶的群体都忠诚地保持一致时，社会影响力是最强大的。即使是一个不同意见的例子也可能大大削弱影响力。例如，在米尔格拉姆 Milgram的第一组服从实验中，65% 的参与者服从假的权威人物对同伙实施“最大电击”。在Milgram实验的重复实验中，3个人实施电击（其中2个是同谋) ，一旦同谋中的一个不服从，只有10% 的受试者实施最大电击。
服从是一种源自权威人物的社会影响力形式。 米尔格拉姆实验，津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验和赫夫林医院实验是三个特别知名的服从性实验，它们都得出结论：在有感知力的情况下，人类意外地全都服从了合法的权威人物。
服从是一种源自权威人物的社会影响力形式。 米尔格拉姆实验，津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验和赫夫林医院实验是三个特别知名的服从性实验，它们都得出结论：在有感知力的情况下，人类意外地全都服从了合法的权威人物。
===Persuasion===
===说服===
说服是指通过理性或象征性的手段引导自己或他人采取某种态度的过程。Robert Cialdini定义了六种“影响力武器” : '''<font color="#ff8000">互惠 reciprocity </font>'''、承诺、'''<font color="#ff8000">社会认同 social proof</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">权威 authority </font>'''、喜好和'''<font color="#ff8000">匮乏 scarcity </font>'''。这些“有影响力的武器”试图通过直接手段实现一致性。说服可以通过诉诸理性或诉诸情感来实现<ref name="Cialdini">Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). ''Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.)''. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. {{ISBN|0-321-01147-3}}</ref>。
说服是指通过理性或象征性的手段引导自己或他人采取某种态度的过程。Robert Cialdini定义了六种“影响力武器” : '''<font color="#ff8000">互惠 reciprocity </font>'''、承诺、'''<font color="#ff8000">社会认同 social proof</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">权威 authority </font>'''、喜好和'''<font color="#ff8000">匮乏 scarcity </font>'''。这些“有影响力的武器”试图通过直接手段实现一致性。说服可以通过诉诸理性或诉诸情感来实现<ref name="Cialdini">Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). ''Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.)''. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. {{ISBN|0-321-01147-3}}</ref>。
那些被认为是专家的人可能会因为他们专家的身份而产生社会影响。这种现象涉及到'''<font color="#ff8000">可信度 credibility </font>'''，可信度作为一种社会影响的工具，人们可以从中借鉴信任的概念。人们相信一个人是可信的，原因有很多，比如经验，吸引力，知识等等。此外，维护自己的声誉而不被视为边缘人物的压力可能会增加人们赞同这个群体的倾向。这种现象被称为'''<font color="#ff8000">群体思维
那些被认为是专家的人可能会因为他们专家的身份而产生社会影响。这种现象涉及到'''<font color="#ff8000">可信度 credibility </font>'''，可信度作为一种社会影响的工具，人们可以从中借鉴信任的概念。人们相信一个人是可信的，原因有很多，比如经验，吸引力，知识等等。此外，维护自己的声誉而不被视为边缘人物的压力可能会增加人们赞同这个群体的倾向。这种现象被称为'''<font color="#ff8000">群体思维
===Psychological manipulation===
===心理控制===
那些能够接触到媒体的人可以利用这种途径来影响公众。例如，一个政治家可能利用演讲来说服公众支持他。这通常被称为利用“天字第一号讲坛”。同样，名人通常并不拥有任何政治权力，但他们为世界上许多公民熟知，因此而拥有社会地位。
那些能够接触到媒体的人可以利用这种途径来影响公众。例如，一个政治家可能利用演讲来说服公众支持他。这通常被称为利用“天字第一号讲坛”。同样，名人通常并不拥有任何政治权力，但他们为世界上许多公民熟知，因此而拥有社会地位。
权力是一个人感到需要遵从他人建议的最大原因之一。如果一个群体中的某个人比其他人拥有更多的权威(或被认为是更有权力的)，那么他就是一个领袖或是最“受欢迎”的。这个人对其他人的影响力最大。例如，在孩子的学校生活中，那些看起来掌控着学校里学生观念的人对其他孩子产生的社会影响是最大的。
权力是一个人感到需要遵从他人建议的最大原因之一。如果一个群体中的某个人比其他人拥有更多的权威(或被认为是更有权力的)，那么他就是一个领袖或是最“受欢迎”的。这个人对其他人的影响力最大。例如，在孩子的学校生活中，那些看起来掌控着学校里学生观念的人对其他孩子产生的社会影响是最大的。
社会影响不一定是负面的。 例如，医生可以尝试说服患者改变不健康的习惯。 当社会影响力尊重受影响者接受或拒绝它的权利并且没有过分强制性时，通常可以认为是无害的。社会影响取决于背景和动机，因此也可能会构成不当操纵。
社会影响不一定是负面的。 例如，医生可以尝试说服患者改变不健康的习惯。 当社会影响力尊重受影响者接受或拒绝它的权利并且没有过分强制性时，通常可以认为是无害的。社会影响取决于背景和动机，因此也可能会构成不当操纵。
===Abusive power and control===
===滥用权力和控制权===
文化似乎在个人遵守群体标准的意愿中发挥着作用。Stanley Milgram发现，挪威的从众程度高于法国。这被归因于挪威长期以来的遵守的是社会责任传统，而法国的文化重点则是'''<font color="#ff8000">个人主义 individualism </font>'''。日本同样具有'''<font color="#ff8000">集体主义 collectivist </font>'''文化，因此具有更高的从众倾向。然而，一项1970年的'''<font color="#ff8000">阿斯克式 Asch-style</font>'''式研究发现，当被疏远时，日本学生更容易产生反从众情绪(他们会给出错误的答案即使团体合作给出的答案是正确) ，这个比例是三分之一，明显高于过去 Asch 研究中的水平。
文化似乎在个人遵守群体标准的意愿中发挥着作用。Stanley Milgram发现，挪威的从众程度高于法国。这被归因于挪威长期以来的遵守的是社会责任传统，而法国的文化重点则是'''<font color="#ff8000">个人主义 individualism </font>'''。日本同样具有'''<font color="#ff8000">集体主义 collectivist </font>'''文化，因此具有更高的从众倾向。然而，一项1970年的'''<font color="#ff8000">阿斯克式 Asch-style</font>'''式研究发现，当被疏远时，日本学生更容易产生反从众情绪(他们会给出错误的答案即使团体合作给出的答案是正确) ，这个比例是三分之一，明显高于过去 Asch 研究中的水平。
滥用控制者使用各种策略来控制受害者。 施虐者的目标是控制受害者使其受害，或以此影响他们使他们感到在恋爱关系中没有平等交流的权力<ref name="Cory p. 30">Jill Cory; Karen McAndless-Davis. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBFdlUnxmkkC&pg=PA30 When Love Hurts: A Woman's Guide to Understanding Abuse in Relationships]''. WomanKind Press; 1 January 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-9686016-0-0}}. p. 30.</ref>。
滥用控制者使用各种策略来控制受害者。 施虐者的目标是控制受害者使其受害，或以此影响他们使他们感到在恋爱关系中没有平等交流的权力<ref name="Cory p. 30">Jill Cory; Karen McAndless-Davis. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qBFdlUnxmkkC&pg=PA30 When Love Hurts: A Woman's Guide to Understanding Abuse in Relationships]''. WomanKind Press; 1 January 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-9686016-0-0}}. p. 30.</ref>。
===Propaganda===
===宣传===
情绪和性格可能会影响个人从众或反从众的可能性。
情绪和性格可能会影响个人从众或反从众的可能性。
宣传是非客观的信息，主要用于影响受众和议程，通常是有选择地陈述事实以鼓励特定的综合体或见解，或使用加载的语言对信息进行感性而非理性的回应<ref name="brit_BLS">{{cite web | last = Smith | first = Bruce L. | author-link = Bruce Lannes Smith | title = Propaganda | website = britannica.com | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | date = 17 February 2016 | url = http://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda | access-date = 23 April 2016 }}</ref>。
宣传是非客观的信息，主要用于影响受众和议程，通常是有选择地陈述事实以鼓励特定的综合体或见解，或使用加载的语言对信息进行感性而非理性的回应<ref name="brit_BLS">{{cite web | last = Smith | first = Bruce L. | author-link = Bruce Lannes Smith | title = Propaganda | website = britannica.com | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | date = 17 February 2016 | url = http://www.britannica.com/topic/propaganda | access-date = 23 April 2016 }}</ref>。
===Hard power===
===硬实力===
硬实力
硬实力是为影响其他政治团体行为或利益而对军事实力和经济实力的使用。这种形式的政治权力通常是侵略性的（强制性的），并且在被一个政治机构强加给另一个军事和经济实力较小的政治机构时最为有效<ref name=hard>{{cite web|title=Hard Power Vs. Soft Power|url=http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|publisher=The Mark|accessdate=26 April 2012|author=Daryl Copeland|date=Feb 2, 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501050956/http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|archivedate=1 May 2012}}</ref>。硬实力与源于外交、文化和历史的文化软实力形成对比<ref name=hard/>。
硬实力是为影响其他政治团体行为或利益而对军事实力和经济实力的使用。这种形式的政治权力通常是侵略性的（强制性的），并且在被一个政治机构强加给另一个军事和经济实力较小的政治机构时最为有效<ref name=hard>{{cite web|title=Hard Power Vs. Soft Power|url=http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|publisher=The Mark|accessdate=26 April 2012|author=Daryl Copeland|date=Feb 2, 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501050956/http://www.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power|archivedate=1 May 2012}}</ref>。硬实力与源于外交、文化和历史的文化软实力形成对比<ref name=hard/>。
社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构，这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系，也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域，自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如，克里斯塔基斯 Christakis和福勒 Fowler发现，社会网络可以传递状态和行为，如肥胖，吸烟，饮酒和幸福。
社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构，这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系，也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域，自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如，克里斯塔基斯 Christakis和福勒 Fowler发现，社会网络可以传递状态和行为，如肥胖，吸烟，饮酒和幸福。
== 前身 ==
== Antecedents ==
根据具有潜在社会网络结构的大规模观察数据，我们可以确定社会影响的程度与各种集体社会现象有关，包括犯罪、社会动乱和选举中的投票行为。例如，将同龄人的社会影响从外部影响中分离出来的方法——利用潜在的社会网络结构和大规模观察数据——被应用于美国总统选举、股市和社会动荡。
根据具有潜在社会网络结构的大规模观察数据，我们可以确定社会影响的程度与各种集体社会现象有关，包括犯罪、社会动乱和选举中的投票行为。例如，将同龄人的社会影响从外部影响中分离出来的方法——利用潜在的社会网络结构和大规模观察数据——被应用于美国总统选举、股市和社会动荡。
很多因素可以影响社会影响力的作用。
很多因素可以影响社会影响力的作用。
然而，社会影响的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 传染模型 contagion model </font>'''已经出现了重要的缺陷。这种模型被假设存在并应用于上述许多研究中。为了克服这些缺陷，人们提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">因果推理方法 causal inference methods </font>'''，以便在使用观测数据时系统地区分社会影响和其他可能的混杂因素。
然而，社会影响的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 传染模型 contagion model </font>'''已经出现了重要的缺陷。这种模型被假设存在并应用于上述许多研究中。为了克服这些缺陷，人们提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">因果推理方法 causal inference methods </font>'''，以便在使用观测数据时系统地区分社会影响和其他可能的混杂因素。
===Social impact theory===
===社会冲击理论===
社会冲击理论
社会影响理论是由比伯·拉坦纳 Bibb Latané在1981年提出的。该理论断言，有三个因素会增加一个人对社会影响做出反应的可能性<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Latané | first1 = B | year = 1981 | title = The psychology of social impact | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.36.4.343 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 343–356 }}</ref>：
社会影响理论是由比伯·拉坦纳 Bibb Latané在1981年提出的。该理论断言，有三个因素会增加一个人对社会影响做出反应的可能性<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Latané | first1 = B | year = 1981 | title = The psychology of social impact | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.36.4.343 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 343–356 }}</ref>：
*“重要性”：他人对个人的重要性
*“重要性”：他人对个人的重要性
*“接近性”：他人对个人产生影响时，在时间和空间上与个人的接近程度
*“接近性”：他人对个人产生影响时，在时间和空间上与个人的接近程度
*“数量”：整体内部人员的数量
*“数量”：整体内部人员的数量
如上所述，理论方法以知识集群的形式出现。但对于社会影响，尚且缺少一个具有全球影响力的理论来促进人们对它的进一步理解，以及帮助人们学习如何防范操纵者。
如上所述，理论方法以知识集群的形式出现。但对于社会影响，尚且缺少一个具有全球影响力的理论来促进人们对它的进一步理解，以及帮助人们学习如何防范操纵者。
===Cialdini's "weapons of influence"===
===西奥迪尼 Cialdini的“影响力武器”===
西奥迪尼 Cialdini的“影响力武器”
Robert Cialdini定义了六种“影响力武器”，这些“武器”可以使个人更容易受到说服者的影响<ref name="Cialdini" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://conceptually.org/concepts/6-principles-of-influence/ |title=What are the 6 principles of influence? |website=conceptually.org |access-date= October 25, 2017}}</ref>
Robert Cialdini定义了六种“影响力武器”，这些“武器”可以使个人更容易受到说服者的影响<ref name="Cialdini" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://conceptually.org/concepts/6-principles-of-influence/ |title=What are the 6 principles of influence? |website=conceptually.org |access-date= October 25, 2017}}</ref>
* 互惠：人们倾向于回报获得的好处。
* 互惠：人们倾向于回报获得的好处。
* 承诺和一致：人们不喜欢自相矛盾。一旦他们承诺了某种行为或者采取某种立场，如果没有充分的理由，他们讨厌改变想法。
* 承诺和一致：人们不喜欢自相矛盾。一旦他们承诺了某种行为或者采取某种立场，如果没有充分的理由，他们讨厌改变想法。
* 社会认同：人们会更倾向于接受其他人都在做的事情。例如，如果看见其他人晚餐之后把剩饭剩菜用来堆肥，这会影响他们也去这样做<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sussman, R.|author2=Gifford, R.|name-list-style=amp|year=2013|title=Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places|journal=Environment & Behavior|volume=45|issue=3|pages=323–343|doi=10.1177/0013916511431274|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0de18b4adf6b128027a3f4c0bc8d757426f20421}}</ref>。
* 社会认同：人们会更倾向于接受其他人都在做的事情。例如，如果看见其他人晚餐之后把剩饭剩菜用来堆肥，这会影响他们也去这样做<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sussman, R.|author2=Gifford, R.|name-list-style=amp|year=2013|title=Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places|journal=Environment & Behavior|volume=45|issue=3|pages=323–343|doi=10.1177/0013916511431274|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/0de18b4adf6b128027a3f4c0bc8d757426f20421}}</ref>。
* 权威：人们喜欢服从权威。
* 权威：人们喜欢服从权威。
* 喜好：人们更容易为自己怀有好感的人所动摇。
* 喜好：人们更容易为自己怀有好感的人所动摇。
* 稀缺：资源的有限性将会产生需求。
* 稀缺：资源的有限性将会产生需求。
===Unanimity===
===一致性===
一致性
当团体的社会影响力一致且坚定时，社会影响力才最强。 即使只有一个异议也可以大大削弱影响力。 例如，在Milgram的第一组服从实验中，有65％的参与者遵从假冒的权威人物来对盟友施加“最大冲击”。 在Milgram实验的迭代中，三个人进行了电击（其中两个人是盟友），一旦其中一个不服从，就只有百分之十的受试者遭受了最大电击<ref name=ObedStudy>{{cite journal|last=Milgram |first=Stanley |year=1963 |title=Behavioral Study of Obedience |journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |pmid=14049516 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120717013242/http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-17 |doi=10.1037/h0040525 |citeseerx=10.1.1.599.92 }} [http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf Full-text PDF.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611105753/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf |date=June 11, 2011 }}</ref>。
当团体的社会影响力一致且坚定时，社会影响力才最强。 即使只有一个异议也可以大大削弱影响力。 例如，在Milgram的第一组服从实验中，有65％的参与者遵从假冒的权威人物来对盟友施加“最大冲击”。 在Milgram实验的迭代中，三个人进行了电击（其中两个人是盟友），一旦其中一个不服从，就只有百分之十的受试者遭受了最大电击<ref name=ObedStudy>{{cite journal|last=Milgram |first=Stanley |year=1963 |title=Behavioral Study of Obedience |journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |pmid=14049516 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |archive-url=https://archive.is/20120717013242/http://content.apa.org/journals/abn/67/4/371 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-17 |doi=10.1037/h0040525 |citeseerx=10.1.1.599.92 }} [http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf Full-text PDF.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611105753/http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1981/A1981LC33300001.pdf |date=June 11, 2011 }}</ref>。
==编者推荐==
[[File:Last1.png|400px|thumb|right|[https://swarma.org/?p=13364 用神经学习模型计算海量实际网络中的节点中心性度量 | 论文速递1篇|集智俱乐部]]]
[https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/188286012 知乎：读书笔记|《影响力》罗伯特•B . 西奥迪尼 知乎：读书笔记|《影响力》罗伯特•B . 西奥迪尼]
本中文词条由[[用户:Agnes|Agnes]] 参与编译， [[用户:和光同尘|和光同尘]] 审校，[[用户:不是海绵宝宝|不是海绵宝宝]]编辑，欢迎在讨论页面留言。
[[Category:待整理页面]]
[https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/188286012 知乎：读书笔记|《影响力》罗伯特•B . 西奥迪尼]
'''本词条内容源自wikipedia及公开资料，遵守 CC3.0协议。'''
[[分类: 社会学]]