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第1行： − '''Cybernetics''' is a [[transdisciplinary]]<ref name="transdisciplinary">{{cite journal |last = Müller |first = Albert |title = A Brief History of the BCL |journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften |year = 2000 |volume = 11 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–30 |url = http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm }}</ref> approach for exploring regulatory [[systems]]—their [[structure]]s, constraints, and possibilities. [[Norbert Wiener]] defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine".<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref> + − Cybernetics is applicable when a system being analyzed incorporates a closed signaling loop—originally referred to as a "circular causal" relationship—that is, where action by the system generates some change in its environment and that change is reflected in the system in some manner ([[feedback]]) that triggers a system change. Cybernetics is relevant to, for example, mechanical, physical, biological, cognitive, and [[social systems]]. The essential goal of the broad field of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals and that participate in circular, [[causality|causal chains]] that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |pages = |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref> Cybernetics includes the study of [[feedback]], [[black box]]es and derived concepts such as [[communication]] and [[control theory|control]] in [[life|living organisms]], [[machine]]s and [[organization]]s including [[self-organization]]. − + − --[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]（[[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]）黑匣子是不是黑箱？他的专有术语查一下下+ − --[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]（[[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]）添加参考文献的语法是编辑的工作 不必再增加自己的工作量 − Concepts studied by [[cyberneticist]]s include, but are not limited to: [[learning]], [[cognition]], [[adaptation]], [[social control]], [[emergence]], [[Technological convergence|convergence]], [[communication]], [[Efficient energy use|efficiency]], [[efficacy]], and [[Interconnectivity|connectivity]]. In cybernetics these concepts (otherwise already objects of study in other disciplines such as [[biology]] and [[engineering]]) are abstracted from the context of the specific [[organism]] or [[machine|device]]. − + − --[[用户:ZQ]]（[[用户讨论:ZQ|讨论]]）这里有好多是复杂性科学领域里面的专有名词，好像有些需要直接给内链。 − The word ''cybernetics'' comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] κυβερνητική (''kybernētikḗ''), meaning "governance", i.e., all that are pertinent to κυβερνάω (''kybernáō''), the latter meaning "to steer, navigate or govern", hence κυβέρνησις (''kybérnēsis''), meaning "government", is the government while κυβερνήτης (''kybernḗtēs'') is the governor or "helmperson" of the "ship". Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]], [[neuroscience]], [[anthropology]], and [[psychology]] in the 1940s, often attributed to the [[Macy Conferences]]. During the second half of the 20th century cybernetics evolved in ways that distinguish first-order cybernetics (about observed systems) from [[second-order cybernetics]] (about observing systems).<ref name="HvF1981">Heinz von Foerster (1981), 'Observing Systems", Intersystems Publications, Seaside, CA. {{OCLC|263576422}}</ref> More recently there is talk about a third-order cybernetics (doing in ways that embraces first and second-order).<ref name="3rd--order cybernetics">{{cite journal |last=Kenny|first=Vincent |title=There's Nothing Like the Real Thing". Revisiting the Need for a Third-Order Cybernetics |journal=Constructivist Foundations|date=15 March 2009|volume=4|issue=2|pages=100–111 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/4/2/100.kenny |accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref> − Studies in cybernetics provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the purpose of making them more [[efficiency|efficient]] and [[effective]]. Fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include [[game theory]], [[system theory]] (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics), [[perceptual control theory]], [[sociology]], psychology (especially [[neuropsychology]], [[behavioral psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]]), [[philosophy]], [[architecture]], and [[organizational theory]].<ref>Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".</ref> [[System dynamics]], originated with applications of [[electrical engineering]] [[control theory]] to other kinds of [[Simulation modeling|simulation model]]s (especially business systems) by [[Jay Forrester]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the 1950s, is a related field. − + − Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, by a variety of people, from a variety of disciplines. − Cybernetician [[Stuart Umpleby]] reports some notable definitions:<ref name="LRReader">{{cite book |first = Stuart |last = Umpleby |authorlink=Stuart Umpleby |title = The Larry Richards Reader 1997–2007 |year=2008 |pages=9–11 |chapter-url = http://polyproject.wikispaces.com/file/view/Larry+Richards+Reader+6+08.pdf |chapter=Definitions of Cybernetics |quote = I developed this list of definitions/descriptions in 1987-88 and have been distributing it at ASC (American Society for Cybernetics) conferences since 1988. I added a few items to the list over the next two years, and it has remained essentially unchanged since then. My intent was twofold: (1) to demonstrate that one of the distinguishing features of cybernetics might be that it could legitimately have multiple definitions without contradicting itself, and (2) to stimulate dialogue on what the motivations (intentions, desires, etc.) of those who have proposed different definitions might be.}}</ref> − * "Science concerned with the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing and processing information so as to use it for control."—[[A. N. Kolmogorov]]+ − * "'The art of steersmanship': deals with all forms of behavior in so far as they are regular, or determinate, or reproducible: stands to the real machine -- electronic, mechanical, neural, or economic -- much as geometry stands to real object in our terrestrial space; offers a method for the scientific treatment of the system in which complexity is outstanding and too important to be ignored."—[[W. Ross Ashby]] − * "A branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect."—[[Gregory Bateson]] − * "The art of securing efficient operation [lit.: the art of effective action]."—[[Louis Couffignal]]<ref>''"La cybernétique est l’art de l’efficacité de l’action"'' originally a French definition formulated in 1953, lit. "Cybernetics is the art of effective action"</ref><ref name="Couffignal">Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", ''The First International Congress on Cybernetics'', Namur, Belgium, June 26–29, 1956, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1958, pp. 46-54.</ref> − * "The art of effective organization."—[[Stafford Beer]] − * "The art and science of manipulating defensible metaphors" (with relevance to constructivist epistemology. The author later extended the definition to include information flows "in all media", from stars to brains.)—[[Gordon Pask]] − * "The art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities."—[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]] − * "The science and art of understanding." – [[Humberto Maturana]] − * "The ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness."—[[Herbert Brun]] 第55行：
第39行： − Other notable definitions include: − * "The science and art of the understanding of understanding."—Rodney E. Donaldson, the first president of the [[American Society for Cybernetics]] − * "A way of thinking about ways of thinking of which it is one."—[[Larry Richards]] − * "The art of interaction in dynamic networks."—[[Roy Ascott]] − * "The study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves."—[[Louis Kauffman]], President of the [[American Society for Cybernetics]]<ref>CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15</ref> 第71行：
第50行： − + − The term ''cybernetics'' stems from [[w:el:Κυβερνήτης|κυβερνήτης]] (''kybernḗtēs'') "steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder". As with the ancient Greek pilot, independence of thought is important in cybernetics.<ref>Leary, Timothy. "The Cyberpunk: the individual as reality pilot" in Storming the Reality Studio. Duke University Press: 1991.</ref> French physicist and mathematician [[André-Marie Ampère]] first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay ''Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'' to describe the science of civil government.<ref>[[H.S. Tsien]]. ''[[Engineering Cybernetics]]'', Preface vii. McGraw Hill, 1954.</ref> The term was used by [[Norbert Wiener]], in his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine|Cybernetics]]'', to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. In the book, he states: "Although the term ''cybernetics'' does not date further back than the summer of 1947, we shall find it convenient to use in referring to earlier epochs of the development of the field."<ref name="W1948" />+ − + − + − The word ''cybernetics'' was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by [[Plato]] in [[First Alcibiades|''Alcibiades'']] to signify the [[governance]] of people.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite web |url = http://www.jurlandia.org/cybsoc.htm |last = Johnson |first = Barnabas |title = The Cybernetics of Society |accessdate = 8 January 2012 }}</ref> The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. 第87行：
第65行： − The first artificial automatic regulatory system was a [[water clock]], invented by the mechanician [[Ktesibios]]; based on a tank which poured water into a reservoir before using it to run the mechanism, it used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they considered this part of engineering (the use of the term ''cybernetics'' is much posterior), [[Ktesibios]] and others such as [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]] and [[Su Song]] are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles. 第94行：
第71行： − The study of ''[[Teleology|teleological]] mechanisms'' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] τέλος or ''télos'' for ''end'', ''goal'', or ''purpose'') in machines with ''corrective feedback'' dates from as far back as the late 18th century when [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]] (1775–1800), a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] identified this as the principle of [[evolution]] in his famous 1858 paper.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S043.htm | title=On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type, by Alfred Russel Wallace}}</ref> In 1868 [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. [[Jakob von Uexküll]] applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (''Funktionskreis'') in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general. − + − Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers. − Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]]. The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]]. 第111行：
第85行： − [[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''. − Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology " by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]]. − In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982). 第128行：
第99行： − Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour). In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]]. 第136行：
第106行： − In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]]. The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study. − + − In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin). 第147行：
第115行： − While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958. − + − [[Artificial intelligence]] (AI) was founded as a distinct discipline at the [[Dartmouth workshop]]. After some uneasy coexistence, AI gained funding and prominence. Consequently, cybernetic sciences such as the study of [[artificial neural network]]s were downplayed; the discipline shifted into the world of social sciences and therapy.<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref> − + − In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" /> 第164行：
第129行： − In [[political science]], [[Project Cybersyn]] attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeber|first=Katharina|last2=Loeber|first2=Katharina|date=2018-04-13|title=Big Data, Algorithmic Regulation, and the History of the Cybersyn Project in Chile, 1971–1973|journal=Social Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=65|doi=10.3390/socsci7040065|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref> 第170行：
第134行： − One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" /> − Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in this increasingly relevant field.<ref name="Kelly" /> − + − {{Economic systems sidebar | Coordination }} − The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time planned economy was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and others [[Soviet cyberneticists]] during the 1960s. By the time information technology was developed enough to enable feasible [[economic planning]] based on computers, the Soviet Union and eastern bloc countries began moving away from planning<ref>{{cite book |last = Feinstein |first = C.H. |title = Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb |url = https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein |url-access = registration |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = September 1969 |isbn = 978-0521049870 |page = [https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein/page/175 175] |quote = At some future date it may appear as a joke of history that socialist countries learned at long last to overcome their prejudices and to dismantle clumsy planning mechanisms in favour of more effective market elements just at a time when the rise of computers and of cybernetics laid the foundation for greater opportunities in comprehensive planning.}}</ref> and eventually collapsed. − More recent proposals for socialism involve "New Socialism", outlined by the computer scientists [[Paul Cockshott]] and [[Allin Cottrell]], where computers determine and manage the flows and allocation of resources among socially owned enterprises.<ref>Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, [http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/index.html ''Towards a new socialism''] (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 17 March 2012.</ref> − + − On the other hand, [[Friedrich Hayek]] also mentions cybernetics as a discipline that could help economists understand the "self-organizing or self-generating systems" called [[Market (economics)|markets]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 1: Rules and Order|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=37}}</ref> Being "complex phenomena",<ref>{{Cite book|title=Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1967|isbn=|location=London|pages=26}}</ref> the best way to examine market functions is by using the feedback mechanism, explained by cybernetic theorists. That way, economists could make "pattern predictions".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|date=Fall 2002|title=Competition as a discovery procedure|url=|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics|volume=5|pages=12|via=}}</ref> − +
无编辑摘要
[[File:Cybernetics.jpg|thumb| 带反馈回路的控制系统原理图]]
[[File:Cybernetics.jpg|thumb| 带反馈回路的控制系统原理图]]
'''控制论 Cybernetics'''是探索调节系统的跨学科研究<ref name="transdisciplinary">{{cite journal |last = Müller |first = Albert |title = A Brief History of the BCL |journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften |year = 2000 |volume = 11 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–30 |url = http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm }}</ref>，用于研究控制系统的结构、局限和发展。'''诺伯特·维纳 Norbert Wiener'''在1948年将控制论定义为“对动物和机器中的控制与通信的科学研究“。<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref>。换句话说，这是关于人、动物和机器之间如何进行互相控制和通信的研究。
'''控制论 Cybernetics'''是探索调节系统的跨学科研究<ref name="transdisciplinary">{{cite journal |last = Müller |first = Albert |title = A Brief History of the BCL |journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften |year = 2000 |volume = 11 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–30 |url = http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm }}</ref>，用于研究控制系统的结构、局限和发展。'''诺伯特·维纳 Norbert Wiener'''在1948年将控制论定义为“对动物和机器中的控制与通信的科学研究“。<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref>。换句话说，这是关于人、动物和机器之间如何进行互相控制和通信的研究。
当所分析的系统包含一个封闭的信号回路（起初称之为“循环因果”关系）时，即当系统的行为（action）在其环境（environment）中发生某些变化，并且该变化会以某种方式（'''反馈 feedback'''）体现在系统中，即触发系统发生改变。控制论与机械、物理、生物、认知和社会系统等都有关。广义上，控制论领域的基本目标是理解和定义具有目标并参与循环因果链的系统，这些系统参与了循环因果链，从行为到感知，然后和预期的目标进行比较，又再次回到行为（可见控制系统反馈原理图）。控制论主要关注的是事物（可以是数字的、机械的或者生物的事物）如何处理信息，对信息作出反应，以及如何改变或者被改变来更好的完成感知和控制任务<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |pages = |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref> 。控制论的研究范围包括反馈、黑匣子和其衍生概念，比如有机生命体、机器和自组织内部通信与控制。
当所分析的系统包含一个封闭的信号回路（起初称之为“循环因果”关系）时，即当系统的行为（action）在其环境（environment）中发生某些变化，并且该变化会以某种方式（'''反馈 feedback'''）体现在系统中，即触发系统发生改变。控制论与机械、物理、生物、认知和社会系统等都有关。广义上，控制论领域的基本目标是理解和定义具有目标并参与循环因果链的系统，这些系统参与了循环因果链，从行为到感知，然后和预期的目标进行比较，又再次回到行为（可见控制系统反馈原理图）。控制论主要关注的是事物（可以是数字的、机械的或者生物的事物）如何处理信息，对信息作出反应，以及如何改变或者被改变来更好的完成感知和控制任务<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |pages = |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref> 。控制论的研究范围包括反馈、黑箱和其衍生概念，比如有机生命体、机器和自组织内部通信与控制。
控制论领域的研究人员所研究的概念包括但不限于: 学习、认知、适应、社会控制、涌现、聚合、通信、效率、效能和连通性。
控制论领域的研究人员所研究的概念包括但不限于: 学习、认知、适应、社会控制、[[涌现]]、聚合、通信、效率、效能和连通性。
控制论一词来自于希腊语κυβερνητική (kybernētikḗ)，意为“治理”，同时也有“转向、导航或者管辖”的意思。20世纪40年代，控制论作为跨学科的起始，将控制系统、网络理论、机械工程、逻辑模型、进化生物学、神经科学、人类学和心理学等领域联系起来，这归咎于著名的梅西会议（编者注：'''梅西会议 Macy Conference'''，是1946到1953年之间的控制论会议，这是最早的跨学科研究组织，在系统理论、控制论和认知科学领域都有着众多的突破）。20世纪下半叶，控制论以一种区分一阶控制论和二阶控制论的方式发展<ref name="HvF1981">Heinz von Foerster (1981), 'Observing Systems", Intersystems Publications, Seaside, CA. {{OCLC|263576422}}</ref> 。近年来，更多的研究集中在三阶控制理论（包含了一阶和二阶）<ref name="3rd--order cybernetics">{{cite journal |last=Kenny|first=Vincent |title=There's Nothing Like the Real Thing". Revisiting the Need for a Third-Order Cybernetics |journal=Constructivist Foundations|date=15 March 2009|volume=4|issue=2|pages=100–111 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/4/2/100.kenny |accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref>。
控制论一词来自于希腊语κυβερνητική (kybernētikḗ)，意为“治理”，同时也有“转向、导航或者管辖”的意思。20世纪40年代，控制论作为跨学科的起始，将控制系统、网络理论、机械工程、逻辑模型、进化生物学、神经科学、人类学和心理学等领域联系起来，这归咎于著名的梅西会议（编者注：'''梅西会议 Macy Conference'''，是1946到1953年之间的控制论会议，这是最早的跨学科研究组织，在系统理论、控制论和认知科学领域都有着众多的突破）。20世纪下半叶，控制论以一种区分一阶控制论和二阶控制论的方式发展<ref name="HvF1981">Heinz von Foerster (1981), 'Observing Systems", Intersystems Publications, Seaside, CA. {{OCLC|263576422}}</ref> 。近年来，更多的研究集中在三阶控制理论（包含了一阶和二阶）<ref name="3rd--order cybernetics">{{cite journal |last=Kenny|first=Vincent |title=There's Nothing Like the Real Thing". Revisiting the Need for a Third-Order Cybernetics |journal=Constructivist Foundations|date=15 March 2009|volume=4|issue=2|pages=100–111 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/4/2/100.kenny |accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref>。
控制论研究提供了衡量系统设计和功能的方法，包括商务管理和学习组织之类的社会系统，目的在于使其运行更加高效和有效。受控制论影响的研究领域包括博弈论，系统论，感知控制论，社会学，心理学（尤其是神经心理学，行为心理学，认知心理学），哲学，建筑学和组织理论<ref>Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".</ref>。而由'''福瑞斯特 Jay Forrester'''在20世纪50年代开创的系统动力学是控制论的相关领域，系统动力学的研究起源于电气控制工程和其他工程业务的仿真模型系统。
控制论研究提供了衡量系统设计和功能的方法，包括商务管理和学习组织之类的社会系统，目的在于使其运行更加高效和有效。受控制论影响的研究领域包括博弈论，系统论，感知控制论，社会学，心理学（尤其是神经心理学，行为心理学，认知心理学），哲学，建筑学和组织理论<ref>Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".</ref>。而由'''福瑞斯特 Jay Forrester'''在20世纪50年代开创的系统动力学是控制论的相关领域，系统动力学的研究起源于电气控制工程和其他工程业务的仿真模型系统。
== Definitions ==
== 定义 ==
控制论被不同的人，不同的学科，以不同的方式定义。控制论专家‘’‘Stuart Umpleby’‘收集了一些值得注意的定义<ref name="LRReader">{{cite book |first = Stuart |last = Umpleby |authorlink=Stuart Umpleby |title = The Larry Richards Reader 1997–2007 |year=2008 |pages=9–11 |chapter-url = http://polyproject.wikispaces.com/file/view/Larry+Richards+Reader+6+08.pdf |chapter=Definitions of Cybernetics |quote = I developed this list of definitions/descriptions in 1987-88 and have been distributing it at ASC (American Society for Cybernetics) conferences since 1988. I added a few items to the list over the next two years, and it has remained essentially unchanged since then. My intent was twofold: (1) to demonstrate that one of the distinguishing features of cybernetics might be that it could legitimately have multiple definitions without contradicting itself, and (2) to stimulate dialogue on what the motivations (intentions, desires, etc.) of those who have proposed different definitions might be.}}</ref>:
控制论被不同的人，不同的学科，以不同的方式定义。控制论专家‘’‘Stuart Umpleby’‘收集了一些值得注意的定义<ref name="LRReader">{{cite book |first = Stuart |last = Umpleby |authorlink=Stuart Umpleby |title = The Larry Richards Reader 1997–2007 |year=2008 |pages=9–11 |chapter-url = http://polyproject.wikispaces.com/file/view/Larry+Richards+Reader+6+08.pdf |chapter=Definitions of Cybernetics |quote = I developed this list of definitions/descriptions in 1987-88 and have been distributing it at ASC (American Society for Cybernetics) conferences since 1988. I added a few items to the list over the next two years, and it has remained essentially unchanged since then. My intent was twofold: (1) to demonstrate that one of the distinguishing features of cybernetics might be that it could legitimately have multiple definitions without contradicting itself, and (2) to stimulate dialogue on what the motivations (intentions, desires, etc.) of those who have proposed different definitions might be.}}</ref>:
* “治愈所有暂时的永恒陈腐真理的能力。” -- '''Herbert Brun'''
* “治愈所有暂时的永恒陈腐真理的能力。” -- '''Herbert Brun'''
其他的重要定义还有：
其他的重要定义还有：
* “对系统和过程的研究，这些系统和过程与它们自身相互作用，并从它们自身产生。” -- '''Louis Kauffman'''<ref>CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15</ref>
* “对系统和过程的研究，这些系统和过程与它们自身相互作用，并从它们自身产生。” -- '''Louis Kauffman'''<ref>CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15</ref>
== 术语起源 Etymology ==
== 术语起源 ==
[[File:Ideal feedback model.png|thumb|简单的反馈模型，AB < 0]]
[[File:Ideal feedback model.png|thumb|简单的反馈模型，AB < 0]]
控制论这个术语源于κυβερνήτης (kybernḗtēs) ，意为“舵手、总督、驾驶员或方向舵”。就像古希腊的飞行员一样，思想的独立性在控制论中很重要<ref>Leary, Timothy. "The Cyberpunk: the individual as reality pilot" in Storming the Reality Studio. Duke University Press: 1991.</ref>。法国物理学家和数学家'''安德烈-玛丽·安培 André-Marie Ampère'''在他1834年的文章《'''论科学的哲学 Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'''》中首次创造了“ cybernetique“这一词，用来描述文明政府的科学。'''诺伯特 · 维纳'''在《控制论》一书中用这个术语来定义研究动物和机器中的控制和通信。他在书中写道: “虽然控制论这个术语最早可以追溯到1947年夏天，但我们可以很容易发现这个词早于这个领域的发展“。<ref name="W1948" />
控制论这个术语源于κυβερνήτης (kybernḗtēs) ，意为“舵手、总督、驾驶员或方向舵”。就像古希腊的飞行员一样，思想的独立性在控制论中很重要<ref>Leary, Timothy. "The Cyberpunk: the individual as reality pilot" in Storming the Reality Studio. Duke University Press: 1991.</ref>。法国物理学家和数学家'''安德烈-玛丽·安培 André-Marie Ampère'''在他1834年的文章《'''论科学的哲学 Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'''》中首次创造了“ cybernetique“这一词，用来描述文明政府的科学。'''诺伯特 · 维纳'''在《控制论》一书中用这个术语来定义研究动物和机器中的控制和通信。他在书中写道: “虽然控制论这个术语最早可以追溯到1947年夏天，但我们可以很容易发现这个词早于这个领域的发展“。<ref name="W1948" />
== 发展历史 History ==
== 发展历史 ==
=== 控制论的起源 Roots of cybernetic theory ===
=== 控制论的起源 ===
[[File:James Watt.jpg|thumb|upright|瓦特]]
[[File:James Watt.jpg|thumb|upright|瓦特]]
具有纠正性反馈的机器的研究可以追溯到18世纪晚期，'''詹姆斯 · 瓦特 James Watt'''的蒸汽机就配备了一个调速器，一个控制发动机转速的离心反馈阀。'''阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士 Alfred Russel Wallace'''在1858年发表的著名论文中将其视为进化的原理<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S043.htm | title=On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type, by Alfred Russel Wallace}}</ref> 。1868年，'''詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell'''发表了有关调速器理论文章，这是最早讨论和完善自调节装置原理的文章之一。'''雅各布·冯·埃克斯库尔 Jakob vonUexküll'''在其功能周期模型（Funktionskreis）应用了反馈机制，以便从总体上解释动物的行为和意义的起源。
具有纠正性反馈的机器的研究可以追溯到18世纪晚期，'''詹姆斯 · 瓦特 James Watt'''的蒸汽机就配备了一个调速器，一个控制发动机转速的离心反馈阀。'''阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士 Alfred Russel Wallace'''在1858年发表的著名论文中将其视为进化的原理<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S043.htm | title=On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type, by Alfred Russel Wallace}}</ref> 。1868年，'''詹姆斯·克莱克·麦克斯韦 James Clerk Maxwell'''发表了有关调速器理论文章，这是最早讨论和完善自调节装置原理的文章之一。'''雅各布·冯·埃克斯库尔 Jakob vonUexküll'''在其功能周期模型（Funktionskreis）应用了反馈机制，以便从总体上解释动物的行为和意义的起源。
===20世纪初 Early 20th century===
===20世纪初===
20世纪40年代，当代控制论作为一个跨学科的研究开始，它将控制系统、网络理论、机械工程、逻辑建模、进化生物学和神经科学等领域联系在一起; 这些思想也与'''卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非 Ludwig von Bertalanffy'''在一般系统理论中的生物学工作有关。电子控制系统起源于1927年贝尔电话实验室工程师'''哈罗德 ·s· 布莱克 Harold S. Black'''关于使用负反馈控制放大器的工作。
20世纪40年代，当代控制论作为一个跨学科的研究开始，它将控制系统、网络理论、机械工程、逻辑建模、进化生物学和神经科学等领域联系在一起; 这些思想也与'''卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非 Ludwig von Bertalanffy'''在一般系统理论中的生物学工作有关。电子控制系统起源于1927年贝尔电话实验室工程师'''哈罗德 ·s· 布莱克 Harold S. Black'''关于使用负反馈控制放大器的工作。
全面质量管理大师，日本授予其二战后最高工业奖的'''爱德华兹·戴明 Edwards Deming'''，1927年在贝尔实验室实习，受到了网络理论的影响; 戴明在他的书'''《新经济学 The New Economics》'''中将“理解系统”作为他所描述的“深刻知识”的四大支柱之一。
全面质量管理大师，日本授予其二战后最高工业奖的'''爱德华兹·戴明 Edwards Deming'''，1927年在贝尔实验室实习，受到了网络理论的影响; 戴明在他的书'''《新经济学 The New Economics》'''中将“理解系统”作为他所描述的“深刻知识”的四大支柱之一。
许多论文整合了这个领域。1935年，俄罗斯生理学家'''P. K. Anokhin'''出版了一本书，其中研究了反馈(“反传入”)的概念。关于调节过程的研究和数学建模是一项持续的研究工作，在1943年有两篇关键文章: '''阿图罗 · 罗森布鲁斯 Arturo Rosenblueth'''、'''诺伯特 · 维纳 Norbert Wiener'''和'''朱利安 · 毕格罗 Julian Bigelow'''的'''《行为、目的和目的论 Behavior, Purpose and Teleology》''' ，还有'''沃伦 · 麦卡洛克 Warren McCulloch'''和'''沃尔特 · 皮茨 Walter Pitts'''的'''《神经活动中内在思想的逻辑演算 A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity》'''。
许多论文整合了这个领域。1935年，俄罗斯生理学家'''P. K. Anokhin'''出版了一本书，其中研究了反馈(“反传入”)的概念。关于调节过程的研究和数学建模是一项持续的研究工作，在1943年有两篇关键文章: '''阿图罗 · 罗森布鲁斯 Arturo Rosenblueth'''、'''诺伯特 · 维纳 Norbert Wiener'''和'''朱利安 · 毕格罗 Julian Bigelow'''的'''《行为、目的和目的论 Behavior, Purpose and Teleology》''' ，还有'''沃伦 · 麦卡洛克 Warren McCulloch'''和'''沃尔特 · 皮茨 Walter Pitts'''的'''《神经活动中内在思想的逻辑演算 A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity》'''。
[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|维纳]]
[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|维纳]]
[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|[[冯诺伊曼]]]]
[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|[[冯诺伊曼]]]]
20世纪40年代早期，'''约翰·冯·诺伊曼 John von Neumann'''对控制论领域做出了独特的贡献:元胞自动机及冯·诺伊曼机。这些看似简单的实验的结果就是自我复制的概念，控制论将其作为核心概念。遗传复制的相同属性适用于社会模因，活细胞，甚至计算机病毒，进一步证明了控制论研究有点令人惊讶的普适性。
20世纪40年代早期，'''[[约翰·冯·诺伊曼]] John von Neumann'''对控制论领域做出了独特的贡献:元胞自动机及冯·诺伊曼机。这些看似简单的实验的结果就是自我复制的概念，控制论将其作为核心概念。遗传复制的相同属性适用于社会模因，活细胞，甚至计算机病毒，进一步证明了控制论研究有点令人惊讶的普适性。
自1958年开始，由'''Heinz von Foerster'''领导的伊利诺伊大学厄巴纳-香槟分校生物计算机实验室并不是唯一一个专注于控制论的研究机构，它是近20年来控制论研究的主要中心。
自1958年开始，由'''Heinz von Foerster'''领导的伊利诺伊大学厄巴纳-香槟分校生物计算机实验室并不是唯一一个专注于控制论的研究机构，它是近20年来控制论研究的主要中心。
===从人工智能领域分离 Split from artificial intelligence===
===从人工智能领域分离 ===
[[人工智能]](AI)是在达特茅斯研讨会上创立的一门学科。经过一段艰难的发展路程，人工智能获得了大量的关注。所以控制论和人工神经网络的研究一样被低估了<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref>。
[[人工智能]](AI)是在达特茅斯研讨会上创立的一门学科。经过一段艰难的发展路程，人工智能获得了大量的关注。所以控制论和人工神经网络的研究一样被低估了<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref>。
=== 新困之论 New cybernetics ===
=== 新困之论 ===
根据'''Bailey'''的说法<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>，当时'''Felix Geyer'''和'''Hans van der Zouwen'''认为新兴的控制论的一个特点是“它将信息视为由个体与环境互动构建和重建的信息。这提供了科学的认识论基础，因为新控制论被视为依赖于观察者，所以其另一个特点是对弥合微观和宏观差距的贡献。也就是说，新控制论将个人与社会联系起来。”。<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>需要注意的另一个特点是“从经典控制论过渡到新的控制论，这涉及到从经典问题过渡到新问题。这些思想上的转变包括: (a)从强调被引导的系统转向负责指导的系统，以及指导指导决策的因素; (b)重新强调试图相互引导的若干系统之间的交流”。<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>
根据'''Bailey'''的说法<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>，当时'''Felix Geyer'''和'''Hans van der Zouwen'''认为新兴的控制论的一个特点是“它将信息视为由个体与环境互动构建和重建的信息。这提供了科学的认识论基础，因为新控制论被视为依赖于观察者，所以其另一个特点是对弥合微观和宏观差距的贡献。也就是说，新控制论将个人与社会联系起来。”。<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>需要注意的另一个特点是“从经典控制论过渡到新的控制论，这涉及到从经典问题过渡到新问题。这些思想上的转变包括: (a)从强调被引导的系统转向负责指导的系统，以及指导指导决策的因素; (b)重新强调试图相互引导的若干系统之间的交流”。<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref>
近年来，通过博弈论(群体相互作用的分析)、进化中的反馈系统以及超材料(研究组成原子的牛顿性质以外的材料)等相关领域，人们对控制论、控制系统和涌现行为的关注引起了人们对这一越来越相关的领域的兴趣。<ref name="Kelly" />
近年来，通过博弈论(群体相互作用的分析)、进化中的反馈系统以及超材料(研究组成原子的牛顿性质以外的材料)等相关领域，人们对控制论、控制系统和涌现行为的关注引起了人们对这一越来越相关的领域的兴趣。<ref name="Kelly" />
===控制论与经济系统 Cybernetics and economic systems===
===控制论与经济系统===
20世纪60年代，经济学家'''奥斯卡•兰格 Oskar Lange'''、控制论专家'''维克托•格鲁什科夫 Viktor Glushkov'''等苏联控制论专家探索了实时计划经济自我调节控制系统的设计。当信息技术发展到足以使基于计算机的可行经济计划成为可能时，苏联和东欧集团国家开始放弃计划经济，并最终解体。<ref>{{cite book |last = Feinstein |first = C.H. |title = Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb |url = https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein |url-access = registration |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = September 1969 |isbn = 978-0521049870 |page = [https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein/page/175 175] |quote = At some future date it may appear as a joke of history that socialist countries learned at long last to overcome their prejudices and to dismantle clumsy planning mechanisms in favour of more effective market elements just at a time when the rise of computers and of cybernetics laid the foundation for greater opportunities in comprehensive planning.}}</ref>
20世纪60年代，经济学家'''奥斯卡•兰格 Oskar Lange'''、控制论专家'''维克托•格鲁什科夫 Viktor Glushkov'''等苏联控制论专家探索了实时计划经济自我调节控制系统的设计。当信息技术发展到足以使基于计算机的可行经济计划成为可能时，苏联和东欧集团国家开始放弃计划经济，并最终解体。<ref>{{cite book |last = Feinstein |first = C.H. |title = Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb |url = https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein |url-access = registration |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = September 1969 |isbn = 978-0521049870 |page = [https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein/page/175 175] |quote = At some future date it may appear as a joke of history that socialist countries learned at long last to overcome their prejudices and to dismantle clumsy planning mechanisms in favour of more effective market elements just at a time when the rise of computers and of cybernetics laid the foundation for greater opportunities in comprehensive planning.}}</ref>
计算机科学家'''保罗•考克肖特 Paul Cockshott'''和'''阿林•科特雷尔 Allin Cottrell'''提出了更多关于社会主义的最新提议，其中包括“新社会主义”(New Socialism) ，即计算机决定和管理社会所有企业之间的资源流动和分配。
计算机科学家'''保罗•考克肖特 Paul Cockshott'''和'''阿林•科特雷尔 Allin Cottrell'''提出了更多关于社会主义的最新提议，其中包括“新社会主义”(New Socialism) ，即计算机决定和管理社会所有企业之间的资源流动和分配。<ref>Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, [http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/index.html ''Towards a new socialism''] (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 17 March 2012.</ref>
另一方面，'''弗里德里希•哈耶克 Friedrich Hayek'''也提到，控制论可以帮助经济学家理解市场的“自组织或自生系统”。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 1: Rules and Order|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=37}}</ref>控制论学者认为检验市场功能的最佳方法是利用反馈机制。这样，经济学家就可以做出“模式预测”。
另一方面，'''弗里德里希•哈耶克 Friedrich Hayek'''也提到，控制论可以帮助经济学家理解市场的“自组织或自生系统”。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 1: Rules and Order|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=37}}</ref>控制论学者认为检验市场功能的最佳方法是利用反馈机制。这样，经济学家就可以做出“模式预测”。<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|date=Fall 2002|title=Competition as a discovery procedure|url=|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics|volume=5|pages=12|via=}}</ref>
Therefore, the market for Hayek is a "communication system", an "efficient mechanism for digesting dispersed information".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=New studies in philosophy, politics, economics and the history of ideas|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=|location=London|pages=34}}</ref> The economist and a cyberneticist are like garderners who are "providing the appropriate environment".<ref name=":0" /> Hayek's definition of information is idiosyncratic and precedes the information theory used in cybernetics and the natural sciences.
Therefore, the market for Hayek is a "communication system", an "efficient mechanism for digesting dispersed information".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=New studies in philosophy, politics, economics and the history of ideas|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=|location=London|pages=34}}</ref> The economist and a cyberneticist are like garderners who are "providing the appropriate environment".<ref name=":0" /> Hayek's definition of information is idiosyncratic and precedes the information theory used in cybernetics and the natural sciences.