“社会复杂性”的版本间的差异
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作为一个中等规模的理论平台,社会复杂性可以应用于任何社会互动或可以观察到这种互动的结果的研究,只需要相关的数据可以用连续或者离散的点来表示即可。 关于复杂性科学在社会学中的应用,一个常见的批判问题就是很难获得足够的数据。<ref>Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." ''Philosophy of the Social Sciences'', 31(3): 323–360.</ref>尽管如此,社会复杂性概念的应用以及对这种复杂性的分析已经开始并将继续成为社会学研究的必要研究领域。从儿时的友谊<ref name="CCS-MMT" />和少女怀孕<ref>Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)] Conference Presentation (unpublished).</ref>到犯罪学和反恐怖主义,<ref>Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." ''Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium''. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. [http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf (Electronic Publication).]</ref>社会复杂性理论几乎应用于社会学研究的所有方面。 | 作为一个中等规模的理论平台,社会复杂性可以应用于任何社会互动或可以观察到这种互动的结果的研究,只需要相关的数据可以用连续或者离散的点来表示即可。 关于复杂性科学在社会学中的应用,一个常见的批判问题就是很难获得足够的数据。<ref>Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." ''Philosophy of the Social Sciences'', 31(3): 323–360.</ref>尽管如此,社会复杂性概念的应用以及对这种复杂性的分析已经开始并将继续成为社会学研究的必要研究领域。从儿时的友谊<ref name="CCS-MMT" />和少女怀孕<ref>Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)] Conference Presentation (unpublished).</ref>到犯罪学和反恐怖主义,<ref>Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." ''Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium''. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. [http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf (Electronic Publication).]</ref>社会复杂性理论几乎应用于社会学研究的所有方面。 | ||
− | 在通信研究和信息计量学领域,自组织系统的概念出现在20世纪90年代中期与科学通信有关的研究中,<ref> | + | 在通信研究和信息计量学领域,自组织系统的概念出现在20世纪90年代中期与科学通信有关的研究中,<ref>Loet Leydesdorff|Leydesdorff, Loet (1995). ''The Challenge of Scientometrics: The development, measurement, and self-organization of scientific communications''. Leiden: DSWO Press, Leiden University.</ref>主要得益于科学计量学,文献计量学,社会语言学都是可以获得离散数据的研究领域,<ref name="CCS-MMT" />社会复杂性也是符号学中使用的一个概念。<ref>Dimitrov, Vladimir and Robert Woog (1997). "Studying Social Complexity: From Soft to Virtual Systems Methodology." [http://www.complex-systems.com/pdf/11-6-5.pdf Complex Systems, 11:(6)].</ref> |
在21世纪的第一个十年,随着方法的发展应用领域也在不断增加<ref>Saberi, Mohammad Karim, Alireza Isfandyari-Moghaddam and Sedigheh Mohamadesmaeil (2011). "Web Citations Analysis of the JASSS: the First Ten Years." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/22.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14:(4), 22].</ref>。 社会复杂性理论应用于社会研究的各个方面,包括社会合作和公共产品的研究,<ref>Nowak, Martin and Roger Highfield (2011). ''Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref>利他主义,<ref>Hang, Ye, Fei Tan, Mei Ding, Yongmin Jia and Yefeng Chen (2011). "Sympathy and Punishment: Evolution of Cooperation in Public Goods Game." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/20.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 20].</ref>投票行为,<ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). [https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.04406 Voting Contagion]. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.</ref><ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177970 Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections]. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970</ref>教育,<ref>Mason, Mark (2008). ''Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell (Educational Philosophy and Theory Special Issues).</ref>全球社会动乱,<ref>Castellani, Brian. (2018). "The Defiance of Global Commitment: A Complex Social Psychology. Routledge complexity in social science series." doi:10.4324/9781351137140.</ref><ref>Braha, Dan. (2012). [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048596 "Global Civil Unrest: Contagion, Self-Organization, and Prediction."] PLoS ONE 7(10): e48596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0048596.</ref>集体行动和社会运动,<ref>Lohmann Susanne (1994). "Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–1991," ''World Politics'', 47: 42–101.</ref><ref>Chesters, Graeme and Ian Welsh (2006). ''Complexity and Social Movements: Protest at the Edge of Chaos." London: Routledge (International Library of Sociology).</ref>社会不平等,<ref>Castellani, Brian et al. (2011). "Addressing the U.S. Financial/Housing Crisis: Pareto, Schelling and Social Mobility."[http://cch.ashtabula.kent.edu/publications/Addressing%20the%20U.S.%20Financial%20&%20Housing%20Crisis.pdf Working Paper].</ref>劳动力和失业,<ref>Hedström, Peter and Yvonne Åberg (2011). "Social interaction and youth unemployment." ''Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms'', Pierre Demeulenaere (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Yilmaz, Levent (2011). "Toward Multi-Level, Multi-Theoretical Model Portfolios for Scientific Enterprise Workforce Dynamics." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/2.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 2.]</ref>经济地理和经济社会学,<ref>Dan Braha, Blake Stacey and Yaneer Bar-Yam. (2011). [http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Journal_Version_SON_Braha.pdf "Corporate Competition: A Self-Organizing Network."] Social Networks, 33(3): 219-230.</ref>政策分析,<ref>Jervis, Robert (1998). ''System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Elliott, Euel and L. Douglas Kiel (eds.) (2000). ''Nonlinear Dynamics, Complexity and Public Policy''. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers.</ref>卫生健康系统,<ref>Brian Castellani, Rajeev Rajaram, J. Galen Buckwalter, Michael Ball and Frederic Hafferty (2012). [https://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-319-09733-6 "Place and Health as Complex Systems: A Case Study and Empirical Test"]. ''SpringerBriefs in Public Health.''</ref>创新和社会变革<ref>Leydesdorff, Loet (2006). ''The Knowledge-Based Economy Modeled, Measured, Simulated''. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers .</ref><ref>Lane, D.; Pumain, D.; Leeuw, S.E. van der; West, G. (eds.) (2009). ''Complexity Perspectives in Innovation and Social Change''. New York, NY: Springer (Methodos Series, Vol. 7).</ref>等等。 当前的一个国际科学研究项目,Seshat:全球历史数据库,被明确地设计用来分析从新石器革命到工业革命的社会复杂性的变化。 | 在21世纪的第一个十年,随着方法的发展应用领域也在不断增加<ref>Saberi, Mohammad Karim, Alireza Isfandyari-Moghaddam and Sedigheh Mohamadesmaeil (2011). "Web Citations Analysis of the JASSS: the First Ten Years." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/22.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14:(4), 22].</ref>。 社会复杂性理论应用于社会研究的各个方面,包括社会合作和公共产品的研究,<ref>Nowak, Martin and Roger Highfield (2011). ''Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref>利他主义,<ref>Hang, Ye, Fei Tan, Mei Ding, Yongmin Jia and Yefeng Chen (2011). "Sympathy and Punishment: Evolution of Cooperation in Public Goods Game." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/20.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 20].</ref>投票行为,<ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). [https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.04406 Voting Contagion]. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.</ref><ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177970 Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections]. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970</ref>教育,<ref>Mason, Mark (2008). ''Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell (Educational Philosophy and Theory Special Issues).</ref>全球社会动乱,<ref>Castellani, Brian. (2018). "The Defiance of Global Commitment: A Complex Social Psychology. Routledge complexity in social science series." doi:10.4324/9781351137140.</ref><ref>Braha, Dan. (2012). [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048596 "Global Civil Unrest: Contagion, Self-Organization, and Prediction."] PLoS ONE 7(10): e48596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0048596.</ref>集体行动和社会运动,<ref>Lohmann Susanne (1994). "Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–1991," ''World Politics'', 47: 42–101.</ref><ref>Chesters, Graeme and Ian Welsh (2006). ''Complexity and Social Movements: Protest at the Edge of Chaos." London: Routledge (International Library of Sociology).</ref>社会不平等,<ref>Castellani, Brian et al. (2011). "Addressing the U.S. Financial/Housing Crisis: Pareto, Schelling and Social Mobility."[http://cch.ashtabula.kent.edu/publications/Addressing%20the%20U.S.%20Financial%20&%20Housing%20Crisis.pdf Working Paper].</ref>劳动力和失业,<ref>Hedström, Peter and Yvonne Åberg (2011). "Social interaction and youth unemployment." ''Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms'', Pierre Demeulenaere (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Yilmaz, Levent (2011). "Toward Multi-Level, Multi-Theoretical Model Portfolios for Scientific Enterprise Workforce Dynamics." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/2.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 2.]</ref>经济地理和经济社会学,<ref>Dan Braha, Blake Stacey and Yaneer Bar-Yam. (2011). [http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Journal_Version_SON_Braha.pdf "Corporate Competition: A Self-Organizing Network."] Social Networks, 33(3): 219-230.</ref>政策分析,<ref>Jervis, Robert (1998). ''System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Elliott, Euel and L. Douglas Kiel (eds.) (2000). ''Nonlinear Dynamics, Complexity and Public Policy''. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers.</ref>卫生健康系统,<ref>Brian Castellani, Rajeev Rajaram, J. Galen Buckwalter, Michael Ball and Frederic Hafferty (2012). [https://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-319-09733-6 "Place and Health as Complex Systems: A Case Study and Empirical Test"]. ''SpringerBriefs in Public Health.''</ref>创新和社会变革<ref>Leydesdorff, Loet (2006). ''The Knowledge-Based Economy Modeled, Measured, Simulated''. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers .</ref><ref>Lane, D.; Pumain, D.; Leeuw, S.E. van der; West, G. (eds.) (2009). ''Complexity Perspectives in Innovation and Social Change''. New York, NY: Springer (Methodos Series, Vol. 7).</ref>等等。 当前的一个国际科学研究项目,Seshat:全球历史数据库,被明确地设计用来分析从新石器革命到工业革命的社会复杂性的变化。 |
2021年9月14日 (二) 11:16的版本
在社会学中,社会复杂性 social complexity是用于分析社会的概念性框架工具,科学中关于复杂性的当代定义与系统理论息息相关,而其研究的现象中包含了众多部分,这些部分之间又存在许多可能性的联系。同时,复杂和简单是相对存在的,并会随着时间而改变的。[1]
在社会学领域中,“复杂性”术语的当前用法,通常是将社会理论称作复杂适应性系统。然而,贯穿社会思想的整个历史发展进程和社会变迁的研究发现,主要反复出现的却是社会复杂性及其表现的特征。[2]社会学理论的早期奠基者,例如费迪南德·托尼斯 FerdinandTönnies,埃米尔·杜尔克海姆 ÉmileDurkheim,马克斯·韦伯 Max Weber,维尔弗雷多·帕累托 Vilfredo Pareto和乔治·西梅尔 Georg Simmel,都验证过社会交往交换程度呈指数增长,且其相互关联性持续上升这一现象。社会关系中的互联性和社会内部涌现的全新属性,在社会学多个领域的理论思考中都受到了重视。[3]社会复杂性作为一种理论工具,是微观和宏观社会现象之间联系的基础,为后期的假设形成提供了中观或中程(又称中层)的理论平台。[4][5]从方法上讲,社会复杂性这一特征是无关乎于理论的,这意味着无论是地方性(局部)或全球性(全局)社会学研究都将适用。[2]
理论背景
美国社会学家塔尔科特·帕森斯 Talcott Parsons在他早期(1937年)关于行为理论的研究中,接手开展了上述早期创始人的工作。[6]到1951年,帕森斯 Parsons便坚定地将这些早期的想法融入正式的系统理论领域中,并写进了他的书《社会系统》中去。[7]在接下来的几十年中,帕森斯 Parsons的学生罗伯特·K·默顿 Robert K. Merton和其他同行在关于中层(中程)理论,社会结构与能动性的讨论中,将一般系统思维与社会系统理论进一步发展之间的这种协同作用进行了更深入的推进。同一时期(自1970年代后期到1990年代初期),关于系统特性在其他许多研究领域也进行了讨论。其中,各个子部分之间的强相关性导致观察到的行为被不同地描述为自生系统,自组织系统,动力学系统,湍流系统和混乱系统。所有的这些系统行为模式都源于数学复杂性。直到1990年代初,诸如尼古拉斯·卢曼 Niklas Luhmann[8]等社会理论学者的工作才开始反映出这些复杂行为的主题。
在现代组织和管理研究中发现,在社会和行为科学中,“复杂性”一词最早用于专称复杂系统。[9]但是在管理研究中,该术语通常以隐喻而不是定性或定量的理论方式使用。[2]直到到1990年代中期,社会科学开始向“复杂性转变”[10],因为复杂性科学中通常使用的某些工具同时被纳入社会科学中。到1998年,国际电子期刊《人工社会与社会模拟杂志》创建。在过去的几年中,许多出版物对社会学领域的复杂性理论进行了概述。这一系列工作,还与其他传统理论建立了联系,包括建构主义认识论和现象学,后现代主义和批判现实主义的哲学立场。
方法论
从方法上讲,社会复杂性这一特征是无关乎于理论的,这意味着无论是地方性(局部)或全球性(全局)社会学研究都将适用。[2]社会复杂性的想法源于早期社会学家的历史比较方法。显然,这种方法对于发展,定义和完善社会复杂性的理论构造非常重要。由于复杂社会系统包含了许多部分,而且这些部分之间又存在许多可能的关系。因此不同的适用方法在一定程度上取决于不同的分析研究深度[11],再进一步说,便是由研究人员根据研究假设所要求的描述或解释程度来区分。
在地方性(局部)分析中,人种志研究(也称作人类学研究或民族志研究)观察法,参与或非参与观察法,内容分析法和其他定性研究方法可能比较合适。近日,同时适用于地方性(局部)和全球性(全局)的社会学研究法正在开发使用中,它是具有高度复杂的定量研究方法。这样的方法包括(但不限于)分岔图法,网络分析法和非线性建模法;以及包括元胞自动机编程,社会控制论和其他社会仿真在内的计算建模法。
复杂社交网络分析法
复杂社交网络分析法用于研究大型复杂社交网络的动态系统(动力学)。其动态网络分析法将网络科学和网络理论中传统的社交网络分析法,链接分析法以及多主体系统结合在一起。[12]通过运用社交网络分析,基于主体的建模,理论物理学和现代数学(尤其是图论和分形几何)中的关键概念和方法,为社会系统的动力学和结构带来了深入见解。通过Duncan Watts,Albert-LászlóBarabási,Nicholas A. Christakis,Kathleen Carley等人的工作,总结出了全新的地方性(局部)社交网络分析计算方法。
通过约翰·乌里 John Urry的工作,加上全球性网络中的学者们对社会学的研究,不断涌现出新的全球性网络分析方法,这些方法同时与曼努埃尔·卡斯特尔 Manuel Castells的工作以及伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦 Immanuel Wallerstein的后续工作相关。自1990年代后期以来,Wallerstein越来越多地利用复杂性理论,尤其是Ilya Prigogine的著作。[13][14][15]动态社会网络分析与系统思想之外的各种传统方法学相关,包括图论,社会学中的传统社会网络分析和数学社会学。它还通过Duncan Watts和Steven Strogatz的研究与混沌数学和复杂动力学联系在一起,并通过Albert-László Barabási和他在无标度网络上的研究成果发展出分形几何法。
计算社会学
计算社会学的发展涉及到以下学者的研究:奈杰尔·吉尔伯特(Nigel Gilbert),克劳斯·G·特罗伊茨(Klaus G.Troitzsch),约书亚·爱泼斯坦(Joshua M.Epstein)等。该领域研究的方法的集中包括社会仿真和数据挖掘,它们都是计算社会学的子领域。社会仿真运用计算机创建一个用于研究复杂社会系统的人工实验室;数据挖掘则运用机器智能,在大型、复杂的真实世界数据库中搜索其之间联系的关键点(斑图)。全新的社会人格学方法是计算社会学的一种变体。[16][17]
计算社会学受到许多微观社会学领域以及系统科学和系统思维的宏观传统的影响。符号互动理论,社会交换理论和理性选择理论的微观影响,以及罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德(Robert Axelrod)等计算政治学家的微观中心思想,共同促进了计算社会学自下而上,基于主体建模方法的发展,进而研究于复杂系统。这就是约书亚·爱泼斯坦(Joshua M. Epstein)所称的生成科学。[17]其他重要的影响领域包括统计、数学建模和计算机模拟。
社会控制论
社会控制论将社会学与二阶控制论和尼古拉斯·卢曼 Niklas Luhmann的工作结合在一起,并结合了复杂性科学的最新成果。在学术研究方面,社会控制论偏重于概念性,弱于方法论或经验实践。[18]社会控制论与社会学内外系统直接相关,特别是在二阶控制论领域。
应用与分支
适用范围
作为一个中等规模的理论平台,社会复杂性可以应用于任何社会互动或可以观察到这种互动的结果的研究,只需要相关的数据可以用连续或者离散的点来表示即可。 关于复杂性科学在社会学中的应用,一个常见的批判问题就是很难获得足够的数据。[19]尽管如此,社会复杂性概念的应用以及对这种复杂性的分析已经开始并将继续成为社会学研究的必要研究领域。从儿时的友谊[2]和少女怀孕[20]到犯罪学和反恐怖主义,[21]社会复杂性理论几乎应用于社会学研究的所有方面。
在通信研究和信息计量学领域,自组织系统的概念出现在20世纪90年代中期与科学通信有关的研究中,[22]主要得益于科学计量学,文献计量学,社会语言学都是可以获得离散数据的研究领域,[2]社会复杂性也是符号学中使用的一个概念。[23]
在21世纪的第一个十年,随着方法的发展应用领域也在不断增加[24]。 社会复杂性理论应用于社会研究的各个方面,包括社会合作和公共产品的研究,[25]利他主义,[26]投票行为,[27][28]教育,[29]全球社会动乱,[30][31]集体行动和社会运动,[32][33]社会不平等,[34]劳动力和失业,[35][36]经济地理和经济社会学,[37]政策分析,[38][39]卫生健康系统,[40]创新和社会变革[41][42]等等。 当前的一个国际科学研究项目,Seshat:全球历史数据库,被明确地设计用来分析从新石器革命到工业革命的社会复杂性的变化。
另见
社会科学
- 复杂社会
- 复杂性经济学
- 复杂性理论和组织
- 差异化(社会学)
- 经济物理学
- 敬业理论
- 《网络分析和民族志问题》
- 个人信息管理
一般信息
- 聚合数据
- 人工神经网络
- 认知复杂性
- 计算复杂性理论
- 双阶段演进
- 进化编程
- 博弈论
- 类属-案例复合体
- 多智能体系统
- 系统学
参考资料
- ↑ Waldrop, M. Mitchell (1992.) Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Eve, Raymond, Sara Horsfall and Mary E. Lee (eds.) (1997). Chaos, Complexity and Sociology: Myths, Models, and Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
- ↑ Giddens, Anthony (1979). Central problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis. London: Macmillan.
- ↑ Freese, Lee (1980). "Formal Theorizing." Annual Review of Sociology, 6: 187–212 (August 1980).
- ↑ Cohen, B. P. (1989). Developing sociological knowledge: theory and method (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelson–Hall.
- ↑ Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers. New York, NY: The Free Press.
- ↑ Parsons, Talcott (1951). The Social System. New York, NY: The Free Press
- ↑ Luhmann, Niklas (1990.) Essays on Self-Reference, New York: Columbia University Press.
- ↑ Kiel, L. Douglas (1994). Managing Chaos and Complexity in Government: A New Paradigm for Managing Change, Innovation and Organizational Renewal. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.
- ↑ Urry, John (2005). "The Complexity Turn." Theory, Culture and Society, 22(5): 1–14.
- ↑ Luhmann, Niklas (1982). The Differentiation of Society. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
- ↑ Carley, Kathleen M. (2003), "Dynamic Network Analysis." Dynamic Social Network Modeling and Analysis: Workshop Summary and Papers, Ronald Breiger, Kathleen Carley, and Philippa Pattison (eds.), National Research Council (Committee on Human Factors): Washington, D.C.: 133–145.
- ↑ Barabási, Albert-László (2003). Linked: The New Science of Networks. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
- ↑ Freeman, Linton C. (2004). The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science. Vancouver Canada: Empirical Press.
- ↑ Watts, Duncan J. (2004). "The New Science of Networks." Annual Review of Sociology, 30: 243–270.
- ↑ Gilbert, Nigel and Klaus G. Troitzsch (2005). Simulation for Social Scientists, 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Open University Press.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Epstein, Joshua M. (2007). Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- ↑ Geyer, Felix and Johannes van der Zouwen (1992). "Sociocybernetics." Handbook of Cybernetics, C.V. Negoita (ed.): 95–124. New York: Marcel Dekker.
- ↑ Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 31(3): 323–360.
- ↑ Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS) Conference Presentation (unpublished).
- ↑ Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. (Electronic Publication).
- ↑ Loet Leydesdorff|Leydesdorff, Loet (1995). The Challenge of Scientometrics: The development, measurement, and self-organization of scientific communications. Leiden: DSWO Press, Leiden University.
- ↑ Dimitrov, Vladimir and Robert Woog (1997). "Studying Social Complexity: From Soft to Virtual Systems Methodology." Complex Systems, 11:(6).
- ↑ Saberi, Mohammad Karim, Alireza Isfandyari-Moghaddam and Sedigheh Mohamadesmaeil (2011). "Web Citations Analysis of the JASSS: the First Ten Years." Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 14:(4), 22.
- ↑ Nowak, Martin and Roger Highfield (2011). Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed. New York, NY: Free Press.
- ↑ Hang, Ye, Fei Tan, Mei Ding, Yongmin Jia and Yefeng Chen (2011). "Sympathy and Punishment: Evolution of Cooperation in Public Goods Game." Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 14(4): 20.
- ↑ Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). Voting Contagion. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.
- ↑ Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970
- ↑ Mason, Mark (2008). Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell (Educational Philosophy and Theory Special Issues).
- ↑ Castellani, Brian. (2018). "The Defiance of Global Commitment: A Complex Social Psychology. Routledge complexity in social science series." doi:10.4324/9781351137140.
- ↑ Braha, Dan. (2012). "Global Civil Unrest: Contagion, Self-Organization, and Prediction." PLoS ONE 7(10): e48596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0048596.
- ↑ Lohmann Susanne (1994). "Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–1991," World Politics, 47: 42–101.
- ↑ Chesters, Graeme and Ian Welsh (2006). Complexity and Social Movements: Protest at the Edge of Chaos." London: Routledge (International Library of Sociology).
- ↑ Castellani, Brian et al. (2011). "Addressing the U.S. Financial/Housing Crisis: Pareto, Schelling and Social Mobility."Working Paper.
- ↑ Hedström, Peter and Yvonne Åberg (2011). "Social interaction and youth unemployment." Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms, Pierre Demeulenaere (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ↑ Yilmaz, Levent (2011). "Toward Multi-Level, Multi-Theoretical Model Portfolios for Scientific Enterprise Workforce Dynamics." Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 14(4): 2.
- ↑ Dan Braha, Blake Stacey and Yaneer Bar-Yam. (2011). "Corporate Competition: A Self-Organizing Network." Social Networks, 33(3): 219-230.
- ↑ Jervis, Robert (1998). System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- ↑ Elliott, Euel and L. Douglas Kiel (eds.) (2000). Nonlinear Dynamics, Complexity and Public Policy. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers.
- ↑ Brian Castellani, Rajeev Rajaram, J. Galen Buckwalter, Michael Ball and Frederic Hafferty (2012). "Place and Health as Complex Systems: A Case Study and Empirical Test". SpringerBriefs in Public Health.
- ↑ Leydesdorff, Loet (2006). The Knowledge-Based Economy Modeled, Measured, Simulated. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers .
- ↑ Lane, D.; Pumain, D.; Leeuw, S.E. van der; West, G. (eds.) (2009). Complexity Perspectives in Innovation and Social Change. New York, NY: Springer (Methodos Series, Vol. 7).
延伸阅读
- Byrne, David (1998). Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences. London: Routledge.
- Byrne, D., & Callaghan, G. (2013). Complexity theory and the social sciences: The state of the art. Routledge.
- Castellani, Brian and Frederic William Hafferty (2009). Sociology and Complexity Science: A New Area of Inquiry (Series: Understanding Complex Systems XV). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
- Eve, Raymond, Sara Horsfall and Mary E. Lee (1997). Chaos, Complexity and Sociology: Myths, Models, and Theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
- Jenks, Chris and John Smith (2006). Qualitative Complexity: Ecology, Cognitive Processes and the Re-Emergence of Structures in Post-Humanist Social Theory. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Kiel, L. Douglas (ed.) (2008). Knowledge Management, Organizational Intelligence, Learning and Complexity. UNESCO (EOLSS): Paris, France.
- Kiel, L. Douglas and Euel Elliott (eds.) (1997). Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications. The University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, MI.
- Leydesdorff, Loet (2001). A Sociological Theory of Communication: The Self-Organization of the Knowledge-Based Society. Parkland, FL: Universal Publishers.
- Urry, John (2005). "The Complexity Turn." Theory, Culture and Society, 22(5): 1–14.