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第181行： − − ==Predators and prey== − [[File:Leopard kill - KNP - 001.jpg|thumb|left|Predator and prey: a [[leopard]] killing a [[bushbuck]]|链接=Special:FilePath/Leopard_kill_-_KNP_-_001.jpg]] − {{Main|Predation}} − − [[Predator]]s and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes [[selective pressure]]s. These often lead to an [[evolutionary arms race]] between prey and predator, resulting in [[anti-predator adaptation]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Predator-Prey Relationships|url=https://necsi.edu/predator-prey-relationships|publisher=New England Complex Systems Institute|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> − − Predators and prey interact and coevolve: the predator to catch the prey more effectively, the prey to escape. The coevolution of the two mutually imposes selective pressures. These often lead to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in anti-predator adaptations. − − 捕食者和猎物相互作用并共同进化: 捕食者更有效地捕捉猎物，猎物逃跑。两者的共同进化相互施加选择压力。这往往导致进化的军备竞赛之间的猎物和捕食者，导致反捕食适应。 − − The same applies to [[herbivore]]s, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] and [[Peter H. Raven]] in 1964 proposed the theory of [[escape and radiate coevolution]] to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |author1-link=Paul R. Ehrlich |last2=Raven |first2=Peter H. |author2-link= Peter H. Raven |year=1964 |title=Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution |journal=Evolution |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=586–608 |doi=10.2307/2406212 |jstor=2406212}}</ref> In the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[red squirrel]]s and [[crossbill]]s (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the [[lodgepole pine]]. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore.<ref name="Berkeley">{{cite web |title=Coevolution |url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_33 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |access-date=17 January 2017}} and the two following pages of the web article.</ref> − − The same applies to herbivores, animals that eat plants, and the plants that they eat. Paul R. Ehrlich and Peter H. Raven in 1964 proposed the theory of escape and radiate coevolution to describe the evolutionary diversification of plants and butterflies. In the Rocky Mountains, red squirrels and crossbills (seed-eating birds) compete for seeds of the lodgepole pine. The squirrels get at pine seeds by gnawing through the cone scales, whereas the crossbills get at the seeds by extracting them with their unusual crossed mandibles. In areas where there are squirrels, the lodgepole's cones are heavier, and have fewer seeds and thinner scales, making it more difficult for squirrels to get at the seeds. Conversely, where there are crossbills but no squirrels, the cones are lighter in construction, but have thicker scales, making it more difficult for crossbills to get at the seeds. The lodgepole's cones are in an evolutionary arms race with the two kinds of herbivore. and the two following pages of the web article. − − 这同样适用于食草动物，吃植物的动物，以及它们吃的植物。1964年，Paul r. Ehrlich 和 Peter h. Raven 提出了逃逸辐射共同进化理论来描述植物和蝴蝶的进化多样性。在落基山脉，红松鼠和斑鸠(食种子的鸟)争夺海滩松的种子。松鼠通过啃咬松果鳞片来获取松子，而交喙则通过它们不寻常的交叉下颚来获取松子。在有松鼠的地方，海滩鱼的球果更重，种子更少，鳞片更薄，这使得松鼠更难获得种子。相反，如果有交喙，但没有松鼠，球果的结构较轻，但有较厚的鳞片，使交喙更难以获得种子。海滩上的锥形细胞与这两种食草动物进行着一场进化中的军备竞赛。以及接下来两页的网络文章。 − − [[File:Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sexual conflict]] has been studied in ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' (shown mating, male on right).|链接=Special:FilePath/Drosophila.melanogaster.couple.2.jpg]] − − ==Competition== − {{Main|Intraspecific competition|Interspecific competition}} − − Both [[intraspecific competition]], with features such as [[sexual conflict]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstb.2005.1785 |title=Sexual conflict over mating and fertilization: An overview |year=2006 |last1=Parker |first1=G. A. |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=361 |issue=1466 |pages=235–59 |pmid=16612884 |pmc=1569603}}</ref> and [[sexual selection]],<ref name="UCL">{{cite web|title=Biol 2007 - Coevolution|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucbhdjm/courses/b242/Coevol/Coevol.html|publisher=[[University College, London]]|access-date=19 January 2017}}</ref> and [[interspecific competition]], such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Connell |first1=Joseph H. |s2cid=5576868 |title=Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past |journal=Oikos |date=October 1980 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=131–138 |doi=10.2307/3544421 |jstor=3544421}}</ref> − − Both intraspecific competition, with features such as sexual conflict and sexual selection, and interspecific competition, such as between predators, may be able to drive coevolution. − − 无论是具有如性冲突和性选择等特征的种内竞争，还是具有如食肉动物之间的种间竞争，都可能推动共同进化。 − − == Multispecies == − [[File:Amegilla cingulata on long tube of Acanthus ilicifolius flower.jpg|thumb|upright|Long-tongued bees and long-tubed flowers coevolved, whether pairwise or "diffusely" in groups known as guilds.<ref name=Juenger/>|链接=Special:FilePath/Amegilla_cingulata_on_long_tube_of_Acanthus_ilicifolius_flower.jpg]] − − thumb|upright|Long-tongued bees and long-tubed flowers coevolved, whether pairwise or "diffusely" in groups known as guilds. − − 多种蜂和长舌蜜蜂共同进化，不论是成对的还是“广泛”进化的，都被称为公会。 − − The types of coevolution listed so far have been described as if they operated pairwise (also called specific coevolution), in which traits of one species have evolved in direct response to traits of a second species, and vice versa. This is not always the case. Another evolutionary mode arises where evolution is reciprocal, but is among a group of species rather than exactly two. This is variously called guild or diffuse coevolution. For instance, a trait in several species of [[flowering plant]], such as offering its [[nectar]] at the end of a long tube, can coevolve with a trait in one or several species of pollinating insects, such as a long proboscis. More generally, flowering plants are pollinated by insects from different families including [[bee]]s, [[fly|flies]], and [[beetle]]s, all of which form a broad [[guild (ecology)|guild]] of [[pollinator]]s which respond to the nectar or pollen produced by flowers.<ref name=Juenger>Juenger, Thomas, and [[Joy Bergelson]]. "Pairwise versus diffuse natural selection and the multiple herbivores of scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata." Evolution (1998): 1583–1592.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Gullan, P. J. |author2=Cranston, P. S. |date=2010 |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |url=https://archive.org/details/insectsoutlineen00pjgu |url-access=limited |publisher=Wiley |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-118-84615-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/insectsoutlineen00pjgu/page/n315 291]–293}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rader |first1=Romina |last2=Bartomeus |first2=Ignasi |display-authors=etal |title=Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination |journal=PNAS |date=2016 |volume=113 |issue=1 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517092112 |pmid=26621730 |pmc=4711867 |pages=146–151 |bibcode=2016PNAS..113..146R|doi-access=free }}</ref> − − The types of coevolution listed so far have been described as if they operated pairwise (also called specific coevolution), in which traits of one species have evolved in direct response to traits of a second species, and vice versa. This is not always the case. Another evolutionary mode arises where evolution is reciprocal, but is among a group of species rather than exactly two. This is variously called guild or diffuse coevolution. For instance, a trait in several species of flowering plant, such as offering its nectar at the end of a long tube, can coevolve with a trait in one or several species of pollinating insects, such as a long proboscis. More generally, flowering plants are pollinated by insects from different families including bees, flies, and beetles, all of which form a broad guild of pollinators which respond to the nectar or pollen produced by flowers.Juenger, Thomas, and Joy Bergelson. "Pairwise versus diffuse natural selection and the multiple herbivores of scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata." Evolution (1998): 1583–1592. − − 到目前为止，所列出的共同进化类型被描述为是两两运作的(也称为特定共同进化) ，其中一个物种的特征是直接响应第二个物种的特征而进化的，反之亦然。但事实并非总是如此。另一种进化模式出现在进化是相互的，但是是在一组物种之间而不是两个物种之间。这被称为公会或漫反射共同进化。例如，几种开花植物的一个特征，例如在长管的末端提供花蜜，可以与一种或几种传粉昆虫的特征共同进化，例如长喙。更一般地说，被子植物是由来自不同科的昆虫授粉的，包括蜜蜂、苍蝇和甲虫，所有这些昆虫形成了一个广泛的授粉者协会，它们对花朵产生的花蜜或花粉作出反应。朱恩格、托马斯和乔伊 · 贝尔格森。成对自然选择与扩散自然选择以及猩红吉利亚的多种食草动物——绿芽菜(Ipomopsis aggregata)进化(1998) : 1583-1592。 − − == Geographic mosaic theory == − {{main|Mosaic coevolution}} − − The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution was developed by [[John N. Thompson]] as a way of linking the ecological and evolutionary processes that shape interactions among species across ecosystems. It is based on three observations that are taken as assumptions: (1) species are usually groups of populations that are somewhat genetically distinct from each other, (2) interacting species often co-occur in only parts of their geographic ranges, and (3) interactions among species differ ecologically among environments. − − The geographic mosaic theory of coevolution was developed by John N. Thompson as a way of linking the ecological and evolutionary processes that shape interactions among species across ecosystems. It is based on three observations that are taken as assumptions: (1) species are usually groups of populations that are somewhat genetically distinct from each other, (2) interacting species often co-occur in only parts of their geographic ranges, and (3) interactions among species differ ecologically among environments. − − 共同进化的地理镶嵌理论是由约翰 · n · 汤普森发展起来的，作为一种连接生态和进化过程的方式，塑造了生态系统中物种之间的相互作用。它是基于三个观察假设: (1)物种通常是群体的有些基因不同，(2)相互作用的物种经常共生在他们的地理范围的一部分，和(3)物种之间的相互作用在生态上不同的环境。 − − From these assumptions, geographic mosaic theory suggests that natural selection on interactions among species is driven by three sources of variation: − − From these assumptions, geographic mosaic theory suggests that natural selection on interactions among species is driven by three sources of variation: − − 根据这些假设，地理镶嵌理论表明物种间相互作用的自然选择是由三个变异来源驱动的: − − 1. ''Geographic selection mosaics'' occur in interactions among species, because genes are expressed in different ways in different environments and because different genes are favored in different environments. For example, natural selection on an interaction between a parasite population and a host population may differ between very dry environments and very wet environments. Alternatively, an interaction between two or more species may be antagonistic in some environments but mutualistic (beneficial to both or all species) in other environments. − − 1. Geographic selection mosaics occur in interactions among species, because genes are expressed in different ways in different environments and because different genes are favored in different environments. For example, natural selection on an interaction between a parasite population and a host population may differ between very dry environments and very wet environments. Alternatively, an interaction between two or more species may be antagonistic in some environments but mutualistic (beneficial to both or all species) in other environments. − − 1.地理选择马赛克发生在物种之间的相互作用，因为基因在不同的环境中以不同的方式表达，因为不同的基因在不同的环境中受欢迎。例如，寄生虫种群和宿主种群相互作用的自然选择在非常干燥的环境和非常湿润的环境之间可能有所不同。或者，两个或两个以上物种之间的相互作用在某些环境中可能是对抗性的，但在其他环境中是互惠性的(对两个或所有物种都有益)。 − − 2. ''Coevolutionary hotspots and coldspots'' occur because natural selection on interactions among species is reciprocal in some environments but not in others. For example, a symbiont population may decrease the survival or reproduction of its hosts in one environment, but it may have no effect on host survival or reproduction in another environment. When detrimental, natural selection will favor evolutionary responses in the host population, resulting in a coevolutionary hotspot of ongoing reciprocal evolutionary changes in the parasite and host populations. When the symbiont has no effect on the survival and reproduction of the host, natural selection on the symbiont population will not favor an evolutionary response by the host population (i.e, a coevolutionary coldspot). − − 2. Coevolutionary hotspots and coldspots occur because natural selection on interactions among species is reciprocal in some environments but not in others. For example, a symbiont population may decrease the survival or reproduction of its hosts in one environment, but it may have no effect on host survival or reproduction in another environment. When detrimental, natural selection will favor evolutionary responses in the host population, resulting in a coevolutionary hotspot of ongoing reciprocal evolutionary changes in the parasite and host populations. When the symbiont has no effect on the survival and reproduction of the host, natural selection on the symbiont population will not favor an evolutionary response by the host population (i.e, a coevolutionary coldspot). − − 2.共同进化热点和冷点的出现是因为物种间相互作用的自然选择在某些环境中是相互的，而在其他环境中则不然。例如，一个共生生物种群可能会减少其宿主在一个环境中的生存或繁殖，但它可能对宿主在另一个环境中的生存或繁殖没有影响。当有害时，自然选择将有利于宿主种群的进化反应，从而导致寄生虫和宿主种群中正在进行的相互进化变化的共同进化热点。当共生生物对宿主的生存和繁殖没有影响时，共生生物种群的自然选择不利于宿主种群的进化反应(即共同进化的冷斑)。 − − 3. Finally, there is constant ''remixing of the traits'' on which natural selection acts both locally and regionally. At any moment in time, a local population will have a unique combination of genes on which natural selection acts. These genetic differences among populations occur because each local population has a unique history of new mutations, genomic alterations (e.g., whole genome duplications), gene flow among populations from individuals arriving from other populations or going to other populations, random loss or fixation of genes at times when populations are small (random genetic drift), hybridization with other species, and other genetic and ecological processes that affect the raw genetic material on which natural selection acts. More formally, then, the geographic mosaic of coevolution can be viewed as a genotype by genotype by environment interaction (GxGxE) that results in the relentless evolution of interacting species. − − 3. Finally, there is constant remixing of the traits on which natural selection acts both locally and regionally. At any moment in time, a local population will have a unique combination of genes on which natural selection acts. These genetic differences among populations occur because each local population has a unique history of new mutations, genomic alterations (e.g., whole genome duplications), gene flow among populations from individuals arriving from other populations or going to other populations, random loss or fixation of genes at times when populations are small (random genetic drift), hybridization with other species, and other genetic and ecological processes that affect the raw genetic material on which natural selection acts. More formally, then, the geographic mosaic of coevolution can be viewed as a genotype by genotype by environment interaction (GxGxE) that results in the relentless evolution of interacting species. − − 3.最后，自然选择在局部和区域两方面作用的特征不断重新混合。在任何时候，当地的种群都会有一个独特的基因组合，自然选择对其起作用。这些种群之间的遗传差异之所以会出现，是因为每个当地种群都有新突变、基因组改变(例如全基因组复制)、来自其他种群或前往其他种群的个体的种群之间的基因流动、在种群较小时随机丢失或固定基因(随机遗传漂变)、与其他种群杂交，以及影响自然选择作用的原始遗传物质的其他遗传和生态过程。更正式地说，共同进化的地理拼图可以被看作是一种基因型与环境相互作用(GxGxE) ，这种作用导致了相互作用物种的无情进化。 − − Geographic mosaic theory has been explored through a wide range of mathematical models, studies of interacting species in nature, and laboratory experiments using microbial species and viruses.<ref name="Thompson, John N. 2005"/><ref name="Thompson, John N"/> − − Geographic mosaic theory has been explored through a wide range of mathematical models, studies of interacting species in nature, and laboratory experiments using microbial species and viruses. − − 地理镶嵌理论已经通过广泛的数学模型，研究自然界中相互作用的物种，以及使用微生物物种和病毒的实验室实验得到探索。 − − ==Outside biology== − Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by analogy. − − Coevolution is primarily a biological concept, but has been applied to other fields by analogy. − − 共同进化主要是一个生物学概念，但已类推应用于其他领域。 − − ===In algorithms=== − {{See also|Evolutionary computation}} − − Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating [[artificial life]] as well as for optimization, game learning and [[machine learning]].<ref>Potter M. and K. De Jong, Evolving Complex Structures via Cooperative Coevolution, Fourth Annual Conference on Evolutionary Programming, San Diego, CA, 1995.</ref><ref>Potter M., The Design and Computational Model of Cooperative Coevolution, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Potter|first1=Mitchell A.|last2=De Jong|first2=Kenneth A.|title=Cooperative Coevolution: An Architecture for Evolving Coadapted Subcomponents|journal=Evolutionary Computation|date=2000|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1–29|doi=10.1162/106365600568086|pmid=10753229|citeseerx=10.1.1.134.2926|s2cid=10265380}}</ref><ref>Weigand P., Liles W., De Jong K., An empirical analysis of collaboration methods in cooperative coevolutionary algorithms. Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO) 2001.</ref><ref>Weigand P., An Analysis of Cooperative Coevolutionary Algorithms, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 2003.</ref> [[Daniel Hillis]] added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at local maxima.<ref>{{citation |author=Hillis, W.D. |year=1990 |title=Co-evolving parasites improve simulated evolution as an optimization procedure |journal=Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena |volume=42 |issue=1–3 |pages=228–234 |doi=10.1016/0167-2789(90)90076-2|bibcode=1990PhyD...42..228H}}</ref> [[Karl Sims]] coevolved virtual creatures.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sims |first1=Karl |title=Evolved Virtual Creatures |url=http://www.karlsims.com/evolved-virtual-creatures.html|publisher=Karl Sims|access-date=17 January 2017|date=1994}}</ref> − − Coevolutionary algorithms are used for generating artificial life as well as for optimization, game learning and machine learning.Potter M. and K. De Jong, Evolving Complex Structures via Cooperative Coevolution, Fourth Annual Conference on Evolutionary Programming, San Diego, CA, 1995.Potter M., The Design and Computational Model of Cooperative Coevolution, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 1997.Weigand P., Liles W., De Jong K., An empirical analysis of collaboration methods in cooperative coevolutionary algorithms. Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO) 2001.Weigand P., An Analysis of Cooperative Coevolutionary Algorithms, PhD thesis, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 2003. Daniel Hillis added "co-evolving parasites" to prevent an optimization procedure from becoming stuck at local maxima. Karl Sims coevolved virtual creatures. − − 协同进化算法用于生成人工生命，以及优化，博弈学习和机器学习。和 k. De Jong，通过合作共同进化进化复杂结构，第四届进化规划年会，圣地亚哥，加利福尼亚州，1995。合作共同进化的设计与计算模型，博士论文，乔治梅森大学，费尔法克斯，弗吉尼亚州，1997。合作共同进化算法中协作方法的实证分析。2001年遗传学和进化计算学会会议论文集。合作共同进化算法分析》 ，博士论文，乔治梅森大学，弗吉尼亚州费尔法克斯，2003年。Daniel Hillis 补充了“共同进化寄生虫”，以防止优化过程陷入局部极大值。卡尔 · 西姆斯共同进化了虚拟生物。 − − ===In architecture=== − − ===In architecture=== − − = = = 在建筑中 = = = − − The concept of coevolution was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist [[Henrik Valeur]] as an antithesis to "star-architecture".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrikvaleur.dk/biography/ |title=Henrik Valeur's biography |access-date=2015-08-29}}</ref> As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |title=About Co-evolution |publisher=Danish Architecture Centre |access-date=2015-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120011414/http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/exhibitions/2006/co-evolution/about-co-evolution/ |archive-date=2015-11-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://movingcities.org/interviews/henrik-valeur_domuschina/ |title= An interview with Henrik Valeur |publisher=Movingcities |access-date=2015-10-17 |date=2007-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=Co-evolution: Danish/Chinese Collaboration on Sustainable Urban Development in China|publisher=Danish Architecture Centre|year= 2006|location= Copenhagen |isbn=978-87-90668-61-7 |page=12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Valeur |first=Henrik |title=India: the Urban Transition - a Case Study of Development Urbanism |publisher=Architectural Publisher B |year=2014 |isbn=978-87-92700-09-4 |title-link=India: the Urban Transition |page=22}}</ref> − − The concept of coevolution was introduced in architecture by the Danish architect-urbanist Henrik Valeur as an antithesis to "star-architecture". As the curator of the Danish Pavilion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture, he created an exhibition-project on coevolution in urban development in China; it won the Golden Lion for Best National Pavilion. − − 共同进化的概念是由丹麦建筑师兼城市规划专家亨利克 · 瓦勒尔在建筑学中引入的，作为“星级建筑”的对立面。作为2006年威尼斯建筑双年展丹麦馆的馆长，他创建了一个关于中国城市发展共同进化的展览项目，并获得了最佳国家馆的金狮奖。 − − At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, [[Newcastle University]], a coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Farmer |first=Graham |year=2017 |title=From Differentiation to Concretisation: Integrative Experiments in Sustainable Architecture |journal=Societies |volume=3 |issue=35 |page=18 |doi=10.3390/soc7040035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> − − At the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, a coevolutionary approach to architecture has been defined as a design practice that engages students, volunteers and members of the local community in practical, experimental work aimed at "establishing dynamic processes of learning between users and designers." − − 在纽卡斯尔大学的建筑、规划和景观学院，建筑学的共同进化方法被定义为一种设计实践，让学生、志愿者和当地社区的成员参与实际的、实验性的工作，旨在“建立用户和设计师之间的动态学习过程” − − ===In cosmology and astronomy=== − In his book ''The Self-organizing Universe'', [[Erich Jantsch]] attributed the entire evolution of the [[cosmos]] to coevolution. − − In his book The Self-organizing Universe, Erich Jantsch attributed the entire evolution of the cosmos to coevolution. − − 在《自组织的宇宙》一书中，埃里希 · 詹茨把整个宇宙的演化归因于共同进化。 − − In [[astronomy]], an emerging theory proposes that [[black hole]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]] develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gnedin |first=Oleg Y. |display-authors=etal|title=Co-Evolution of Galactic Nuclei and Globular Cluster Systems |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=785 |issue=1 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/785/1/71 |bibcode=2014ApJ...785...71G |pages=71|arxiv=1308.0021|year=2014 |s2cid=118660328 }}</ref> − − In astronomy, an emerging theory proposes that black holes and galaxies develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological coevolution. − − 在天文学中，一个新兴的理论提出，黑洞和星系以一种相互依存的方式发展，类似于生物的共同进化。 − − ===In management and organization studies=== − Since year 2000, a growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2020.119964 |title=Do organizations really co-evolve? Problematizing co-evolutionary change in management and organization studies |year=2020 |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |volume= 155 |last1=Abatecola |first1=Gianpaolo |last2=Breslin |first2=Dermot |last3=Kask |first3=Johan |page=119964 |issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free }}</ref> − − Since year 2000, a growing number of management and organization studies discuss coevolution and coevolutionary processes. Even so, Abatecola el al. (2020) reveals a prevailing scarcity in explaining what processes substantially characterize coevolution in these fields, meaning that specific analyses about where this perspective on socio-economic change is, and where it could move toward in the future, are still missing. − − 自2000年以来，越来越多的管理和组织研究讨论共同进化和共同进化过程。即便如此，Abatecola el al。(2020年)揭示了在解释这些领域的共同进化的基本特征方面的普遍缺乏，这意味着关于这种社会经济变化的观点在哪里，以及它在未来可能走向哪里的具体分析仍然缺失。 − − ===In sociology=== − In ''Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future'' (1994)<ref>{{cite book |last=Norgaard |first=Richard B. |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and a Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future |year=1994 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> [[Richard Norgaard]] proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glasser |first1=Harold |year=1996 |title=Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future by Richard B. Norgaard |journal=Environmental Values |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=267–270|jstor=30301478 }}</ref> In ''Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment'' (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship".<ref>{{cite book |last=Gowdy |first=John |title=Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment |year=1994 |publisher=Springer |pages=1–2}}</ref> − − In Development Betrayed: The End of Progress and A Coevolutionary Revisioning of the Future (1994) Richard Norgaard proposes a coevolutionary cosmology to explain how social and environmental systems influence and reshape each other. In Coevolutionary Economics: The Economy, Society and the Environment (1994) John Gowdy suggests that: "The economy, society, and the environment are linked together in a coevolutionary relationship". − − 发展背叛: 进步的终结和未来的共同进化修正(1994)理查德 · 诺尔加尔提出了一个共同进化的宇宙学来解释社会和环境系统是如何相互影响和重塑的。在《共同进化经济学: 经济、社会和环境》(1994)中，约翰 · 高迪认为: “经济、社会和环境在共同进化的关系中联系在一起。”。 − − ===In technology=== − {{Further|Software ecosystem}} − − [[Computer software]] and [[computer hardware|hardware]] can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, [[operating system]]s and computer [[application software|applications]], [[web browser]]s, and [[web application]]s. − − Computer software and hardware can be considered as two separate components but tied intrinsically by coevolution. Similarly, operating systems and computer applications, web browsers, and web applications. − − 计算机软件和硬件可以被看作是两个独立的组成部分，但是它们之间存在着内在的联系。同样，操作系统和计算机应用程序，网络浏览器和网络应用程序。 − − All of these systems depend upon each other and advance step by step through a kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside.<ref>Theo D'Hondt, Kris De Volder, Kim Mens and Roel Wuyts, Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation, TheKluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science, 2002, Volume 648, Part 2, 207–224 {{doi|10.1007/978-1-4615-0883-0_7}}</ref> The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in [[sociotechnical system]]s analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and a "social system" of relationships and procedures through which the technology is tied into the goals of the system and all the other human and organizational relationships within and outside the system. Such systems work best when the technical and social systems are deliberately developed together.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cherns |first1=A. |year=1976 |title=The principles of sociotechnical design |journal=Human Relations |volume=29 |issue=8 |page=8 |doi=10.1177/001872677602900806|doi-access=free }}</ref> − − All of these systems depend upon each other and advance step by step through a kind of evolutionary process. Changes in hardware, an operating system or web browser may introduce new features that are then incorporated into the corresponding applications running alongside.Theo D'Hondt, Kris De Volder, Kim Mens and Roel Wuyts, Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation, TheKluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science, 2002, Volume 648, Part 2, 207–224 The idea is closely related to the concept of "joint optimization" in sociotechnical systems analysis and design, where a system is understood to consist of both a "technical system" encompassing the tools and hardware used for production and maintenance, and a "social system" of relationships and procedures through which the technology is tied into the goals of the system and all the other human and organizational relationships within and outside the system. Such systems work best when the technical and social systems are deliberately developed together. − − 所有这些系统都相互依存，通过一种进化过程一步一步地前进。硬件、操作系统或网页浏览器的改变可能会引入新的功能，然后将这些功能合并到相应的应用程序中。Theo d’hondt，Kris De volker，Kim Mens and Roel Wuyts，Co-Evolution of Object-Oriented Software Design and Implementation，kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science，2002，Volume 648，Part 2,207-224这个想法与社会技术系统分析和设计中的“联合优化”概念密切相关，在这个概念中，一个系统被理解为既包括用于生产和维护的工具和硬件的“技术系统”，也包括一个关系和程序的“社会系统”，通过这个系统，技术与系统的目标以及系统内外的所有其他人和组织关系联系在一起。当技术系统和社会系统有意识地结合在一起时，这种系统工作得最好。 − − ==See also== − *[[Bak–Sneppen model]] − *[[Coextinction]] − *[[Ecological fitting]] − *[[Escape and radiate coevolution]] − *[[Genomics of domestication]] − − *Bak–Sneppen model − *Coextinction − *Ecological fitting − *Escape and radiate coevolution − *Genomics of domestication − − = = 也 = = − * Bak-Sneppen 模型 − * 共同灭绝 − * 生态适应 − * 逃逸和辐射共同进化 − * 驯化的基因组学 − − ==Notes== − {{Notelist}} − − ==References== − {{Reflist}} − − ==External links== − *[http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/coevolution-6703/ Coevolution], video of lecture by [[Stephen C. Stearns]] ([[Open Yale Courses]]) − − *Coevolution, video of lecture by Stephen C. Stearns (Open Yale Courses) − − = = = 外部链接 = = − * 共同进化，讲座视频 Stephen c. Stearns (耶鲁大学开放课程) − − {{Evolutionary psychology}} − − [[Category:Ecological processes]] − [[Category:Environmental terminology]] − [[Category:Evolution of the biosphere]] − [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] − [[Category:Habitat]] − − Category:Ecological processes − Category:Environmental terminology − Category:Evolution of the biosphere − Category:Evolutionary biology − Category:Habitat − − 类别: 生态过程类别: 环境术语类别: 生物圈的进化类别: 进化生物学类别: 栖息地 − − <noinclude> − − <small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Coevolution]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[共同演化/edithistory]]</small></noinclude> − − [[Category:待整理页面]]
无编辑摘要
拮抗性的共同进化在收获蚂蚁种类 Pogonomyrmex barbatus 和 Pogonomyrmex rugosus 中可以看到，它们之间既有寄生关系也有互惠关系。蚁后无法通过与同类交配来繁殖工蚁。只有通过杂交，他们才能生产工人。有翅膀的雌性像寄生虫一样为其他物种的雄性服务，因为它们的精子只会产生不育的杂种。但由于殖民地完全依赖这些杂交种生存，这也是互惠互利的。虽然两个物种之间没有基因交换，但它们无法朝着基因差异太大的方向进化，因为这将使杂交繁殖变得不可能。
拮抗性的共同进化在收获蚂蚁种类 Pogonomyrmex barbatus 和 Pogonomyrmex rugosus 中可以看到，它们之间既有寄生关系也有互惠关系。蚁后无法通过与同类交配来繁殖工蚁。只有通过杂交，他们才能生产工人。有翅膀的雌性像寄生虫一样为其他物种的雄性服务，因为它们的精子只会产生不育的杂种。但由于殖民地完全依赖这些杂交种生存，这也是互惠互利的。虽然两个物种之间没有基因交换，但它们无法朝着基因差异太大的方向进化，因为这将使杂交繁殖变得不可能。