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===20世纪初 Early 20th century===

===20世纪初 Early 20th century===

Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers.

Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers.

Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]].  The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]].

Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]].  The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]].

[[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''.

[[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''.

Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].

 

 

Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology " by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].

 

 

In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982).

In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982).

[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]]

[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]]

Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour).  In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]].

Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour).  In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]].

[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|John von Neumann]]

[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|John von Neumann]]

In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]].  The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept.  The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study.

In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]].  The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept.  The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study.

In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin).

In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin).

[[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]] was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics.<ref>''Философский словарь'' (Philosophical dictionary), 1954; "Cybernetics", ''The Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (1979)</ref> In the mid to late 1950s [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. Soviet cybernetics incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glushkov |first=Viktor |date=1966 |title=Introduction to Cybernetics |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122868504}}</ref>

 

1950年，维纳扩大了控制论的实际含义，在他的畅销书'''《控制论与社会 The Human Use of Human Beings》'''中，他将自动化系统(如调节的蒸汽机)和人类机构进行了类比。

 

While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.

While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.

===Split from artificial intelligence===

===Split from artificial intelligence===