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===20世纪初 Early 20th century===
 
===20世纪初 Early 20th century===
 
Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers.
 
Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers.
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20世纪40年代,当代控制论作为一个跨学科的研究开始,它将控制系统、网络理论、机械工程、逻辑建模、进化生物学和神经科学等领域联系在一起; 这些思想也与'''卡尔·路德维希·冯·贝塔郎非 Ludwig von Bertalanffy'''在一般系统理论中的生物学工作有关。电子控制系统起源于1927年贝尔电话实验室工程师'''哈罗德 ·s· 布莱克 Harold S. Black'''关于使用负反馈控制放大器的工作。
    
Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]].  The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]].
 
Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]].  The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]].
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第二次世界大战期间,负反馈在电子电路中的早期应用包括炮架和雷达天线的控制。系统动力学的创始人,'''Jay Forrester'''在二战期间作为MIT伺服机械实验室的研究生与'''Gordon s. Brown'''一起为美国海军开发电子控制系统。后来,Forrester 将这些想法民用。
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[[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''.
 
[[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''.
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Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].
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全面质量管理大师,日本授予其二战后最高工业奖的'''爱德华兹·戴明 Edwards Deming''',1927年在贝尔实验室实习,受到了网络理论的影响; 戴明在他的书'''《新经济学 The New Economics》'''中将“理解系统”作为他所描述的“深刻知识”的四大支柱之一。
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Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology " by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].
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许多论文整合了这个领域。1935年,俄罗斯生理学家'''P. K. Anokhin'''出版了一本书,其中研究了反馈(“反传入”)的概念。关于调节过程的研究和数学建模是一项持续的研究工作,在1943年有两篇关键文章: '''阿图罗 · 罗森布鲁斯 Arturo Rosenblueth'''、'''诺伯特 · 维纳 Norbert Wiener'''和'''朱利安 · 毕格罗 Julian Bigelow'''的'''《行为、目的和目的论 Behavior, Purpose and Teleology》''' ,还有'''沃伦 · 麦卡洛克 Warren McCulloch'''和'''沃尔特 · 皮茨 Walter Pitts'''的'''《神经活动中内在思想的逻辑演算 A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity》'''。
    
In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982).
 
In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982).
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1936年,'''Ștefan Odobleja'''发表了'''《声音检查与临床符号学 Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics》'''。1937年,他参加了第九届国际军事医学大会,并在论文中宣布了他未来工作的计划书,即他最重要的著作'''《心理学 Demonstration de phonoscopie》''' ,在这篇论文中,他奠定了广义控制论的理论基础。由于第二次世界大战,这本书的出版没有引起人们的注意(这本书的罗马尼亚第一版直到1982年才出版)。
    
[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]]
 
[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]]
    
Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour).  In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]].
 
Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour).  In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]].
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控制论作为一门学科,是由维纳、麦卡洛克、罗森布鲁斯等人建立的。创建者还包括数学家'''阿兰•图灵 Alan Turing'''和 '''W•格雷•沃尔特 w. Grey Walter'''。沃尔特是最早建造自主机器人的人之一。1947年春天,维纳应邀参加了在法国Nancy举行的傅里叶分析大会(法国是早期控制论的中心,美国和英国也是) ,这次大会是由法国科学协会'''Bourbaki'''和数学家'''Szolem Mandelbrojt'''组织的,后者是世界著名数学家'''beno î t Mandelbrot'''的叔叔。在法国逗留期间,维纳收到了一份关于应用数学这一部分的统一性质的手稿,这一部分是在布朗运动和通信工程的研究中发现的。第二年夏天,维纳回到美国,决定将新词控制论引入他的科学理论中,这个理论是为了表示对“目的论机制”的研究而创造的: 它通过他的'''《控制论: 或动物和机器中的控制和交流》'''一书而流行起来<ref name="W1948" /> 。
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[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|John von Neumann]]
 
[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|John von Neumann]]
    
In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]].  The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept.  The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study.
 
In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]].  The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept.  The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study.
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20世纪40年代早期,'''约翰·冯·诺伊曼 John von Neumann'''对控制论领域做出了独特的贡献: 冯·诺伊曼细胞自动机及冯·诺伊曼机。这些看似简单的实验的结果就是自我复制的概念,控制论将其作为核心概念。遗传复制的相同属性适用于社会模因,活细胞,甚至计算机病毒,进一步证明了控制论研究有点令人惊讶的普适性。
    
In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin).
 
In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin).
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[[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]] was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics.<ref>''Философский словарь'' (Philosophical dictionary), 1954; "Cybernetics", ''The Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (1979)</ref> In the mid to late 1950s [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. Soviet cybernetics incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glushkov |first=Viktor |date=1966 |title=Introduction to Cybernetics |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122868504}}</ref>
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1950年,维纳扩大了控制论的实际含义,在他的畅销书'''《控制论与社会 The Human Use of Human Beings》'''中,他将自动化系统(如调节的蒸汽机)和人类机构进行了类比。
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While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.
 
While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.
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自1958年开始,由'''Heinz von Foerster'''领导的伊利诺伊大学厄巴纳-香槟分校生物计算机实验室并不是唯一一个专注于控制论的研究机构,它是近20年来控制论研究的主要中心。
    
===Split from artificial intelligence===
 
===Split from artificial intelligence===
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