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Computational sociology is a branch of sociology that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena. Using computer simulations, artificial intelligence, complex statistical methods, and analytic approaches like social network analysis, computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modeling of social interactions.

Computational sociology is a branch of sociology that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena. Using computer simulations, artificial intelligence, complex statistical methods, and analytic approaches like social network analysis, computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modeling of social interactions.

'''计算社会学 Computational Sociology''' 是社会学的一个分支，它使用计算密集型方法来分析和模拟社会现象。通过使用计算机模拟、人工智能、复杂统计方法以及社会网络分析等分析方法自下而上地建立社会互动模型，计算社会学建立并检验复杂社会过程的理论。

'''计算社会学 Computational Sociology''' 是社会学的一个分支，它使用计算密集型方法来分析和模拟社会现象。计算社会学通过使用计算机模拟、人工智能、复杂统计方法以及社会网络分析等分析方法自下而上地建立社会互动模型，是建立并检验复杂社会过程的理论。

It involves the understanding of social agents, the interaction among these agents, and the effect of these interactions on the social aggregate. Although the subject matter and methodologies in social science differ from those in natural science or computer science, several of the approaches used in contemporary social simulation originated from fields such as physics and artificial intelligence. Some of the approaches that originated in this field have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of network centrality from the fields of social network analysis and network science.

It involves the understanding of social agents, the interaction among these agents, and the effect of these interactions on the social aggregate. Although the subject matter and methodologies in social science differ from those in natural science or computer science, several of the approaches used in contemporary social simulation originated from fields such as physics and artificial intelligence. Some of the approaches that originated in this field have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of network centrality from the fields of social network analysis and network science.

它涉及理解社会行为主体和它们的相互作用，以及这些相互作用如何影响社会总体(--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） social aggregate)。虽然社会科学的主题和方法不同于自然科学或计算机科学，但当代社会仿真模拟中使用的一些方法起源于物理学和人工智能等领域。这一领域的一些方法早已被引入到自然科学中，如来自社会网络分析和网络科学领域的网络中心性度量方法等。

它涉及理解社会行为主体和它们的相互作用，以及这些相互作用如何影响社会总体(--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） social aggregate)。虽然社会科学的主题和方法不同于自然科学或计算机科学，但当代社会仿真模拟中使用的一些方法起源于物理学和人工智能等领域。这一领域的一些方法，如来自社会网络分析和网络科学领域的网络中心性度量方法等，早已被引入到自然科学中。

In relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of social complexity. Social complexity concepts such as complex systems, non-linear interconnection among macro and micro process, and emergence, have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology. A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "artificial society", by which researchers can analyze the structure of a social system.<!--

In relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of social complexity. Social complexity concepts such as complex systems, non-linear interconnection among macro and micro process, and emergence, have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology. A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "artificial society", by which researchers can analyze the structure of a social system.<!--

在相关文献中，计算社会学经常与社会复杂性的研究有关。复杂系统、宏观和微观过程之间的非线性关联、涌现等社会复杂性概念已经进入计算社会学的词汇。一个实际而著名的例子是建立“人工社会”的计算模型，通过它研究人员可以分析一个社会系统的结构。 <！ --

在相关文献中，计算社会学经常与社会复杂性的研究有关。复杂系统、宏观和微观过程之间的非线性关联、涌现等社会复杂性概念已经进入计算社会学的词汇。一个实际而著名的例子是建立“'''人工社会 Artificial Society'''”的计算模型，通过它研究人员可以分析一个社会系统的结构。 <！ --

  While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text ABOVE this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles - thanks!   

  While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text ABOVE this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles - thanks!   

While emergence has had a valuable and important role with the foundation of Computational Sociology, there are those who do not necessarily agree.  One major leader in the field, Epstein, doubted the use because there were aspects that are unexplainable.  Epstein put up a claim against emergentism, in which he says it "is precisely the generative sufficiency of the parts that constitutes the whole's explanation".

While emergence has had a valuable and important role with the foundation of Computational Sociology, there are those who do not necessarily agree.  One major leader in the field, Epstein, doubted the use because there were aspects that are unexplainable.  Epstein put up a claim against emergentism, in which he says it "is precisely the generative sufficiency of the parts that constitutes the whole's explanation".

虽然涌现在计算社会学的建立上发挥了宝贵而重要的作用，但也有人不太同意。该领域的一个主要人物爱泼斯坦 Epstein 对这种用法持怀疑态度，因为有些方面是这个用法无法解释的。爱泼斯坦提出了一种反对“涌现主义”的观点，他表示，“正是这些部分的有生成意义的充分性构成了对整体的解释”。

虽然涌现在计算社会学的建立上发挥了宝贵而重要的作用，但也有人不太同意。该领域的一个主要人物爱泼斯坦(Epstein)对这种用法持怀疑态度，因为有些方面是这个用法无法解释的。爱泼斯坦提出了一种反对“涌现主义”的观点，他表示:“正是这些部分的有生成意义的充分性构成了对整体的解释”。

In the post-war era, Vannevar Bush's differential analyser, John von Neumann's cellular automata, Norbert Wiener's cybernetics, and Claude Shannon's information theory became influential paradigms for modeling and understanding complexity in technical systems. In response, scientists in disciplines such as physics, biology, electronics, and economics began to articulate a general theory of systems in which all natural and physical phenomena are manifestations of interrelated elements in a system that has common patterns and properties. Following Émile Durkheim's call to analyze complex modern society sui generis, post-war structural functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons seized upon these theories of systematic and hierarchical interaction among constituent components to attempt to generate grand unified sociological theories, such as the AGIL paradigm. Sociologists such as George Homans argued that sociological theories should be formalized into hierarchical structures of propositions and precise terminology from which other propositions and hypotheses could be derived and operationalized into empirical studies. Because computer algorithms and programs had been used as early as 1956 to test and validate mathematical theorems, such as the four color theorem, some scholars anticipated that similar computational approaches could "solve" and "prove" analogously formalized problems and theorems of social structures and dynamics.

In the post-war era, Vannevar Bush's differential analyser, John von Neumann's cellular automata, Norbert Wiener's cybernetics, and Claude Shannon's information theory became influential paradigms for modeling and understanding complexity in technical systems. In response, scientists in disciplines such as physics, biology, electronics, and economics began to articulate a general theory of systems in which all natural and physical phenomena are manifestations of interrelated elements in a system that has common patterns and properties. Following Émile Durkheim's call to analyze complex modern society sui generis, post-war structural functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons seized upon these theories of systematic and hierarchical interaction among constituent components to attempt to generate grand unified sociological theories, such as the AGIL paradigm. Sociologists such as George Homans argued that sociological theories should be formalized into hierarchical structures of propositions and precise terminology from which other propositions and hypotheses could be derived and operationalized into empirical studies. Because computer algorithms and programs had been used as early as 1956 to test and validate mathematical theorems, such as the four color theorem, some scholars anticipated that similar computational approaches could "solve" and "prove" analogously formalized problems and theorems of social structures and dynamics.

战后时期，范内瓦·布什（Vannevar Bush）的'''微分分析机 Differential Analyser''' 、冯·诺伊曼（John von Neumann）的'''元胞自动机 Cellular Automata'''、 维纳（Norbert Wiener）的'''控制论 Cybernetics'''和克劳德·香农（Claude Shannon）的'''信息论 Information Theory'''成为技术系统中建模和理解复杂性的重要范式。物理学、生物学、电子学和经济学等学科的科学家开始阐述系统的一般理论，即所有自然和物理现象都是具有共同模式和属性的系统中相互关联的元素的表现。按照涂尔干（Émile Durkheim）分析特定的复杂现代社会（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]）Following Émile Durkheim's call to analyze complex modern society sui generis）的要求，战后结构功能主义社会学家如帕森斯（Talcott Parsons）利用这些组成部分之间系统和等级相互作用的理论，试图产生大统一的社会学理论，如 AGIL 范式。霍曼斯（George Homans）等社会学家认为，社会学理论应该被构建为具有命题和精确术语的等级结构的，并且从中可以得出能够在实证研究中被操作化的其他命题和假设。由于早在1956年计算机算法和程序就已经被用来测试和验证数学定理（如'''四色定理Four Color Theorem'''），一些学者预计相似的计算方法可以“解决”和“证明”类似的社会结构和动态的问题和定理。

战后时期，范内瓦·布什（Vannevar Bush）的'''微分分析机 Differential Analyser''' 、冯·诺伊曼（John von Neumann）的'''元胞自动机 Cellular Automata'''、 维纳（Norbert Wiener）的'''控制论 Cybernetics'''和克劳德·香农（Claude Shannon）的'''信息论 Information Theory'''成为技术系统中建模和理解复杂性的重要范式。物理学、生物学、电子学和经济学等学科的科学家开始阐述系统的一般理论，即所有自然和物理现象都是具有共同模式和属性的系统中相互关联的元素的表现。按照涂尔干（Émile Durkheim）分析特定的复杂现代社会

 

（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]）Following Émile Durkheim's call to analyze complex modern society sui generis）

 

的要求，战后结构功能主义社会学家如帕森斯（Talcott Parsons）利用这些组成部分之间系统和等级相互作用的理论，试图产生大统一的社会学理论，如 AGIL 范式。霍曼斯（George Homans）等社会学家认为，社会学理论应该被构建为具有命题和精确术语的等级结构的，并且从中可以得出能够在实证研究中被操作化的其他命题和假设。由于早在1956年计算机算法和程序就已经被用来测试和验证数学定理（如'''四色定理Four Color Theorem'''），一些学者预计相似的计算方法可以“解决”和“证明”类似的社会结构和动态的问题和定理。

===Macrosimulation and microsimulation 宏观模拟和微观模拟===

===Macrosimulation and microsimulation 宏观模拟和微观模拟===

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, social scientists used increasingly available computing technology to perform macro-simulations of control and feedback processes in organizations, industries, cities, and global populations. These models used differential equations to predict population distributions as holistic functions of other systematic factors such as inventory control, urban traffic, migration, and disease transmission. Although simulations of social systems received substantial attention in the mid-1970s after the Club of Rome published reports predicting that policies promoting exponential economic growth would eventually bring global environmental catastrophe, the inconvenient conclusions led many authors to seek to discredit the models, attempting to make the researchers themselves appear unscientific. Hoping to avoid the same fate, many social scientists turned their attention toward micro-simulation models to make forecasts and study policy effects by modeling aggregate changes in state of individual-level entities rather than the changes in distribution at the population level. However, these micro-simulation models did not permit individuals to interact or adapt and were not intended for basic theoretical research.

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, social scientists used increasingly available computing technology to perform macro-simulations of control and feedback processes in organizations, industries, cities, and global populations. These models used differential equations to predict population distributions as holistic functions of other systematic factors such as inventory control, urban traffic, migration, and disease transmission. Although simulations of social systems received substantial attention in the mid-1970s after the Club of Rome published reports predicting that policies promoting exponential economic growth would eventually bring global environmental catastrophe, the inconvenient conclusions led many authors to seek to discredit the models, attempting to make the researchers themselves appear unscientific. Hoping to avoid the same fate, many social scientists turned their attention toward micro-simulation models to make forecasts and study policy effects by modeling aggregate changes in state of individual-level entities rather than the changes in distribution at the population level. However, these micro-simulation models did not permit individuals to interact or adapt and were not intended for basic theoretical research.

截至20世纪60年代末70年代初，社会科学家越来越多地使用已有的计算技术，在组织、工业、城市和全球人口中进行控制和反馈过程的'''宏观模拟 Macrosimulation''' 。这些模型使用微分方程作为其他系统因素的整体函数来预测人口分布，这些系统因素包括库存控制、城市交通、人口迁移和疾病传播等。20世纪70年代中期，罗马俱乐部(Club of Rome)发表报告预测，促进指数式经济增长的政策最终将导致全球环境灾难，这些令人不舒服的结论导致许多研究者试图反驳这些模型，试图让研究人员自己显得不那么科学。为了避免同样的情况，许多社会科学家将注意力转向'''微观模拟 Microsimulation'''模型。这些模型通过模拟个体状态的总体变化而不是总体人口级别的变化来进行预测和研究政策的效果。然而，这些微观模拟模型并不允许个体相互作用或适应、变化（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） 变化是根据适应（adapt）加上去的，不知道是否合理），研究者也不打算将它们用于基础理论研究。

截至20世纪60年代末70年代初，社会科学家越来越多地使用已有的计算技术，在组织、工业、城市和全球人口中进行控制和反馈过程的'''宏观模拟 Macrosimulation''' 。这些模型使用微分方程作为其他系统因素的整体函数来预测人口分布，这些系统因素包括库存控制、城市交通、人口迁移和疾病传播等。20世纪70年代中期，罗马俱乐部(Club of Rome)发表报告预测，促进指数式经济增长的政策最终将导致全球环境灾难，这些令人不舒服的结论导致许多研究者试图反驳这些模型，试图让研究人员自己显得不那么科学。为了避免同样的情况，许多社会科学家将注意力转向'''微观模拟 Microsimulation'''模型。这些模型通过模拟个体状态的总体变化而不是总体人口级别的变化来进行预测和研究政策的效果。然而，这些微观模拟模型并不允许个体相互作用或适应、变化（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]）变化是根据适应（adapt）加上去的，不知道是否合理），研究者也不打算将它们用于基础理论研究。

===Cellular automata and agent-based modeling 元胞自动机和基于主体建模===

===Cellular automata and agent-based modeling 元胞自动机和基于主体建模===

Independent from developments in computational models of social systems, social network analysis emerged in the 1970s and 1980s from advances in graph theory, statistics, and studies of social structure as a distinct analytical method and was articulated and employed by sociologists like James S. Coleman, Harrison White, Linton Freeman, J. Clyde Mitchell, Mark Granovetter, Ronald Burt, and Barry Wellman. The increasing pervasiveness of computing and telecommunication technologies throughout the 1980s and 1990s demanded analytical techniques, such as network analysis and multilevel modeling, that could scale to increasingly complex and large data sets. The most recent wave of computational sociology, rather than employing simulations, uses network analysis and advanced statistical techniques to analyze large-scale computer databases of electronic proxies for behavioral data. Electronic records such as email and instant message records, hyperlinks on the World Wide Web, mobile phone usage, and discussion on Usenet allow social scientists to directly observe and analyze social behavior at multiple points in time and multiple levels of analysis without the constraints of traditional empirical methods such as interviews, participant observation, or survey instruments. Continued improvements in machine learning algorithms likewise have permitted social scientists and entrepreneurs to use novel techniques to identify latent and meaningful patterns of social interaction and evolution in large electronic datasets.

Independent from developments in computational models of social systems, social network analysis emerged in the 1970s and 1980s from advances in graph theory, statistics, and studies of social structure as a distinct analytical method and was articulated and employed by sociologists like James S. Coleman, Harrison White, Linton Freeman, J. Clyde Mitchell, Mark Granovetter, Ronald Burt, and Barry Wellman. The increasing pervasiveness of computing and telecommunication technologies throughout the 1980s and 1990s demanded analytical techniques, such as network analysis and multilevel modeling, that could scale to increasingly complex and large data sets. The most recent wave of computational sociology, rather than employing simulations, uses network analysis and advanced statistical techniques to analyze large-scale computer databases of electronic proxies for behavioral data. Electronic records such as email and instant message records, hyperlinks on the World Wide Web, mobile phone usage, and discussion on Usenet allow social scientists to directly observe and analyze social behavior at multiple points in time and multiple levels of analysis without the constraints of traditional empirical methods such as interviews, participant observation, or survey instruments. Continued improvements in machine learning algorithms likewise have permitted social scientists and entrepreneurs to use novel techniques to identify latent and meaningful patterns of social interaction and evolution in large electronic datasets.

'''社会网络分析 Social Network Analysis'''独立于社会系统计算模型的发展，在20世纪70年代和80年代出现于图论、统计学和社会结构的研究中，它作为一种独特的分析方法被社会学家如 James s. Coleman，Harrison White，Linton Freeman，J. Clyde Mitchell，Mark Granovetter，Ronald Burt 和 Barry Wellman 等阐述和采用。在整个1980年代和1990年代，计算和通信技术日益普及，这要求采用诸如网络分析和多级建模等分析技术，这些技术可以扩展到日益复杂和庞大的数据集中。最近的计算社会学没有使用模拟，而是使用网络分析和先进的统计技术来分析大规模计算机数据库中电子代理的行为数据。电子记录，如电子邮件和即时消息记录，万维网上的超链接，移动电话数据，以及 Usenet 上的讨论，使社会科学家能够直接观察社会行为并在多个时间点和多个层次的分析行为，并且不受传统的实证方法，如访谈、观察（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） 为了通顺，删除研究对象/被试：participants）或调查工具的限制。机器学习算法的不断改进同样使得社会科学家和企业家能够使用新技术来识别大型电子数据集中潜在但有意义的社会互动和演化模式。

'''社会网络分析 Social Network Analysis'''独立于社会系统计算模型的发展，在20世纪70年代和80年代出现于图论、统计学和社会结构的研究中，它作为一种独特的分析方法被社会学家如 James s. Coleman，Harrison White，Linton Freeman，J. Clyde Mitchell，Mark Granovetter，Ronald Burt 和 Barry Wellman 等阐述和采用。在整个1980年代和1990年代，计算和通信技术日益普及，这要求采用诸如网络分析和多级建模等分析技术，这些技术可以扩展到日益复杂和庞大的数据集中。最近的计算社会学没有使用模拟，而是使用网络分析和先进的统计技术来分析大规模计算机数据库中电子代理的行为数据。电子记录，如电子邮件和即时消息记录，万维网上的超链接，移动电话数据，以及 Usenet 上的讨论，使社会科学家能够直接观察社会行为并在多个时间点和多个层次的分析行为，并且不受传统的实证方法，如访谈、观察（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]）为了通顺，删除研究对象/被试：participants）或调查工具的限制。机器学习算法的不断改进同样使得社会科学家和企业家能够使用新技术来识别大型电子数据集中潜在但有意义的社会互动和演化模式。

Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges. These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society.

Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges. These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society.

计算社会学和其他研究领域一样面临着一系列的挑战。必须有意义地处理这些挑战（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） meaningfully怎么翻译才比较通顺？），以便对社会产生最大的影响。

计算社会学和其他研究领域一样面临着一系列的挑战。必须有意义地处理这些挑战（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） meaningfully怎么翻译才比较通顺？），才能对社会产生最大的影响。

Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc.

Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc.

形成的每个社会都处于某种层次上，并且这些层次之间有相互作用的倾向。社会中的级别不仅可以分为微观或宏观的层次，还可以存在中间的层次，比如群体、网络、社区等。（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） 合并了英文的原句）

（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） 合并了英文的原句）

The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels?

The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels?

As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed?

As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed?

====正如前面所讨论的，社会分为不同层次，在这样的一个级别中，个人级别，微观-宏观联系指的是创造更高级别的相互作用。有一组问题，需要回答这些微观宏观链接。它们是如何形成的？它们什么时候汇聚？什么样的反馈被推到了较低的层次，他们是如何被推动的？====

正如前面所讨论的，社会分为不同层次。在其中的一个层次：个体层次中，'''微观-宏观联系 Micro-macro Link'''指的是创造更高层次的相互作用。关于微观-宏观链接有一系列问题等待回答。它们是如何形成的？它们什么时候汇聚？什么反馈被推到了较低的层次，他们是如何被推动的？（--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]（[[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]） 语句不通顺啊，什么叫推到了较低层次的反馈。。。不懂不懂）

Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult.

Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult.

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611091342/http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/web/Groups/Groups.html Related Research Groups], from UIUC, IL 相关研究组（资料来自伊利诺伊大学香槟分校）

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611091342/http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/web/Groups/Groups.html Related Research Groups], from UIUC, IL 相关研究组（资料来自伊利诺伊大学香槟分校）

==Associations, conferences and workshops==

==Associations, conferences and workshops 协会、会议及工作坊==

*[http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/naacsos/ North American Association for Computational Social and Organization Sciences]

*[http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/naacsos/ North American Association for Computational Social and Organization Sciences]

==Academic programs, departments and degrees==

==Academic programs, departments and degrees 学术课程、院系和学位==

* [http://mediapatterns.enm.bris.ac.uk/ University of Bristol "Mediapatterns" project]

* [http://mediapatterns.enm.bris.ac.uk/ University of Bristol "Mediapatterns" project]

==Centers and institutes==

==Centers and institutes 中心和机构==

===North America===

===North America 北美===

* [http://cnets.indiana.edu/ Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research], Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.

* [http://cnets.indiana.edu/ Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research], Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.

===South America===

===South America 南美===

* [http://www5.each.usp.br/mestrado-academico-em-modelagem-de-sistemas-complexos/ Modelagem de Sistemas Complexos], University of São Paulo - EACH, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

* [http://www5.each.usp.br/mestrado-academico-em-modelagem-de-sistemas-complexos/ Modelagem de Sistemas Complexos], University of São Paulo - EACH, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

===Europe===

===Europe 欧洲===

* [http://cfpm.org Centre for Policy Modelling], Manchester, UK.

* [http://cfpm.org Centre for Policy Modelling], Manchester, UK.

===Asia===

===Asia 亚洲===

* [http://bandungfe.net Bandung Fe Institute, Centre for Complexity in Surya University], Bandung, Indonesia.

* [http://bandungfe.net Bandung Fe Institute, Centre for Complexity in Surya University], Bandung, Indonesia.