更改

</blockquote >  

</blockquote >  

19世纪，研究[[热力学]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺]]开创了自然科学中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机]]的“工作介质”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”指称该系统。

19世纪，研究[[热力学]]的法国物理学家[[尼古拉·莱昂纳尔·萨迪·卡诺]]开创了自然科学中的“系统”概念。1824年，他研究了[[蒸汽机]]的“工作介质”（通常是水蒸气）的系统在加热时做功的系统功能。该工作介质可与锅炉、冷水库（冷水流）、活塞（推动以做功的工作部件）。1850年，德国物理学家[[鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯]]把[[environment (systems)|外部环境]]也纳入对这个图景的概括，并以“工作体”来指称该系统。

In the 19th century the French physicist [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], who studied [[thermodynamics]], pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the [[natural science]]s. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'' (typically a body of water vapor) in [[steam engine]]s, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] generalized this picture to include the concept of the [[environment (systems)|surroundings]] and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

[[诺伯特 · 维纳]]和[[威廉 罗斯 · 阿什比]]开拓性地将数学应用于系统研究，系统概念得到重大发展。< ref name ="wiener1948">

In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the working substance (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

1948.《控制论: 动物与机器的控制与交流》。法国，巴黎: 赫尔曼与塞尔，剑桥，麻省: 麻省理工出版社，剑桥，麻省理工出版社。

The biologist [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] became one of the pioneers of the [[Systems theory|general systems theory]]. In 1945 he introduced ''models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.''<ref name="Bertalanfy1945">1945, ''Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre,'' Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.</ref>

The biologist [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] became one of the pioneers of the [[Systems theory|general systems theory]]. In 1945 he introduced ''models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.''<ref name="Bertalanfy1945">1945, ''Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre,'' Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.</ref>

The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.

The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.

[[Norbert Wiener]] and [[William Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a ''system''.<ref name="Wiener1948">

[[Norbert Wiener]] and [[William Ross Ashby|Ross Ashby]], who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a ''system''.<ref name="Wiener1948">

Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.<ref name="Wiener1948">

Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a system.<ref name="Wiener1948">

1948, ''Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.'' Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

1948, ''Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.'' Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.

In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.

在20世纪80年代，John Henry Holland，默里·盖尔曼和其他人在跨学科的圣菲研究所中创造了一个术语: 复杂适应性系统。

在20世纪80年代，约翰·亨利·霍兰德，默里·盖尔曼和其他人在跨学科的圣菲研究所中创造了一个术语: 复杂适应性系统。