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→发展 Development
The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.
The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.
工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加，在老年期逐渐下降。
=== 童年 Childhood ===
=== 儿童期 Childhood ===
{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}
{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}
Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.
Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.
工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加，而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持，研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究，该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景，该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目、关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中，相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务，这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务，但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现，发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活，而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。
Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.
Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.
老年期认知功能的衰退中工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言，人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢，萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现，提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减，从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而，工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢，因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此，工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰，从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持，但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降，目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释，她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层，而随着年龄的增长，前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。
== 训练 Training ==
== 训练 Training ==