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* 20世纪80年代，[[约翰·亨利·霍兰德 John Henry Holland]]，[[默里·盖尔曼 Murray Gell-Mann]]和其他等人在跨学科的[[圣菲研究所 Santa Fe Institute]]中创设了术语: 复杂适应性系统。

* 20世纪80年代，[[约翰·亨利·霍兰德 John Henry Holland]]，[[默里·盖尔曼 Murray Gell-Mann]]和其他等人在跨学科的[[圣菲研究所 Santa Fe Institute]]中创设了术语: 复杂适应性系统。

 

In the 19th century the French physicist [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], who studied [[thermodynamics]], pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the [[natural science]]s. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'' (typically a body of water vapor) in [[steam engine]]s, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] generalized this picture to include the concept of the [[environment (systems)|surroundings]] and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.

In the 19th century the French physicist [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], who studied [[thermodynamics]], pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the [[natural science]]s. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the ''working substance'' (typically a body of water vapor) in [[steam engine]]s, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist [[Rudolf Clausius]] generalized this picture to include the concept of the [[environment (systems)|surroundings]] and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.