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The study of planetary habitability is partly based upon extrapolation from knowledge of the [[Earth's conditions, as the Earth is the only planet currently known to harbour life (The Blue Marble, 1972 Apollo 17 photograph)]]

The study of planetary habitability is partly based upon extrapolation from knowledge of the [[Earth's conditions, as the Earth is the only planet currently known to harbour life (The Blue Marble, 1972 Apollo 17 photograph)]]

对行星适居性星球的研究部分是基于[地球的条件，因为地球是目前已知唯一存在生命的行星]的知识推断

行星可居住性的研究部分基于对[[地球条件]的了解推断，因为地球是目前已知的唯一一颗拥有生命的行星

The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock Lovelock named the idea after Gaia, the primordial goddess who personified the Earth in Greek mythology. In 2006, the Geological Society of London awarded Lovelock the Wollaston Medal in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis.

The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock Lovelock named the idea after Gaia, the primordial goddess who personified the Earth in Greek mythology. In 2006, the Geological Society of London awarded Lovelock the Wollaston Medal in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis.

这个假设是由化学家詹姆斯 · 洛夫洛克提出的，他以希腊神话中原始女神盖亚的名字命名这个想法。2006年，美国青草湖(韩国)学会授予洛夫洛克伍拉斯顿奖章，部分是因为他在盖亚假说方面的工作。

这个假设是由化学家詹姆斯 洛夫洛克提出的，他以希腊神话中地球的化身盖亚的名字命名了这个想法。2006年，伦敦地质学会授予洛夫洛克沃拉斯顿勋章，部分原因是他在<font color="#ff8000"> 盖亚假说Gaia hypothesis</font>方面的工作。

Topics related to the hypothesis include how the biosphere and the evolution of organisms affect the stability of global temperature, salinity of seawater, atmospheric oxygen levels, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth.

Topics related to the hypothesis include how the biosphere and the evolution of organisms affect the stability of global temperature, salinity of seawater, atmospheric oxygen levels, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth.

==Overview==

==Overview总览==

Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms [[Co-evolution|co-evolve]] with their environment: that is, they "influence their [[abiotic]] environment, and that environment in turn influences the [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] by [[Darwinism|Darwinian process]]". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early [[Bacteria|thermo-acido-philic]] and [[methanogenic bacteria]] towards the oxygen-enriched [[atmosphere]] today that supports more [[Phanerozoic|complex life]].

Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms [[Co-evolution|co-evolve]] with their environment: that is, they "influence their [[abiotic]] environment, and that environment in turn influences the [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] by [[Darwinism|Darwinian process]]". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early [[Bacteria|thermo-acido-philic]] and [[methanogenic bacteria]] towards the oxygen-enriched [[atmosphere]] today that supports more [[Phanerozoic|complex life]].

Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms co-evolve with their environment: that is, they "influence their abiotic environment, and that environment in turn influences the biota by Darwinian process". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early thermo-acido-philic and methanogenic bacteria towards the oxygen-enriched atmosphere today that supports more complex life.

Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms co-evolve with their environment: that is, they "influence their abiotic environment, and that environment in turn influences the biota by Darwinian process". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early thermo-acido-philic and methanogenic bacteria towards the oxygen-enriched atmosphere today that supports more complex life.

A reduced version of the hypothesis has been called "influential Gaia" in "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?" by Andrei G. Lapenis, which states the biota influence certain aspects of the abiotic world, e.g. temperature and atmosphere.  This is not the work of an individual but a collective of Russian scientific research that was combined into this peer reviewed publication. It states the coevolution of life and the environment through “micro-forces”

A reduced version of the hypothesis has been called "influential Gaia" in "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?" by Andrei G. Lapenis, which states the biota influence certain aspects of the abiotic world, e.g. temperature and atmosphere.  This is not the work of an individual but a collective of Russian scientific research that was combined into this peer reviewed publication. It states the coevolution of life and the environment through “micro-forces”

在《生物圈的定向进化: 生物地球化学选择还是盖亚? 》一书中，这一假说的简化版被称为“有影响力的盖亚”由安德烈 · g · 拉佩尼斯所著，他指出生物群影响着非生物世界的某些方面，例如:。温度和大气。这不是一个人的工作，而是一个俄罗斯科学研究的集体，合并成这个同行评议的出版物。它通过“微观力量”阐述了生命与环境的共同进化

在《生物圈的定向进化: 生物地球化学选择还是盖亚? 》一书中，这一假说的简化版被称为“有影响力的盖亚”由安德烈·G·拉佩尼斯所著，他指出生物群影响着非生物世界的某些方面，例如:温度和大气。这不是一个人的工作，而是一个俄罗斯科学研究的集体，合并成这个同行评议的出版物。它通过“微观力量”阐述了生命与环境的共同进化

Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia hypothesis have become better known to the Western scientific community.<ref name=":02" /> These scientists include [[Piotr Kropotkin|Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin]] (1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky (1847–1918), [[Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky]] (1863–1945), and Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886–1963).

Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia hypothesis have become better known to the Western scientific community.<ref name=":02" /> These scientists include [[Piotr Kropotkin|Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin]] (1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky (1847–1918), [[Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky]] (1863–1945), and Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886–1963).

 

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating complex system involving the biosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrospheres and the pedosphere, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating complex system involving the biosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrospheres and the pedosphere, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.

盖亚假说认为，地球是一个自我调节的复杂系统，包括生物圈、大气层、水圈和土壤圈，作为一个进化的系统紧密结合在一起。这个假说认为，这个被称为盖亚的系统作为一个整体，寻求一个适合当代生命的物理和化学环境。

盖亚假说认为，地球是一个自我调节的复杂系统，包括生物圈、大气层、水圈和土壤圈，作为一个进化的系统紧密结合在一起。这个假说认为，这个被称为盖亚的系统作为一个整体，寻求一个适合当代生命的物理和化学环境。

Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected [[emergent property]] or [[entelechy]] of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a [[reducing environment]] to an [[oxygen]]-rich one at the end of the [[Archean|Archaean]] and the beginning of the [[Proterozoic]] periods.

Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected [[emergent property]] or [[entelechy]] of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actiYons may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a [[reducing environment]] to an [[oxygen]]-rich one at the end of the [[Archean|Archaean]] and the beginning of the [[Proterozoic]] periods.

 

Gaia evolves through a cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.<!-- Article submitted to Royal Society is not a valid reference. This must be replaced by actual article citation if accepted, or an alternative reference -->

Gaia evolves through a cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.<!-- Article submitted to Royal Society is not a valid reference. This must be replaced by actual article citation if accepted, or an alternative reference -->

Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the [[Superorganism|coordination of living organisms]] and maintain those conditions through [[homeostasis]]. In some versions of [[Gaia philosophy]], all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called ''Gaia''. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the [[Coevolution|coevolving]] diversity of living organisms.

Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the [[Superorganism|coordination of living organisms]] and maintain those conditions through [[homeostasis]]. In some versions of [[Gaia philosophy]], all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called ''Gaia''. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the [[Coevolution|coevolving]] diversity of living organisms.

 

The Gaia hypothesis was an influence on the [[deep ecology]] movement.<ref>David Landis Barnhill, Roger S. Gottlieb (eds.), ''Deep Ecology and World Religions: New Essays on Sacred Ground'', SUNY Press, 2010, p. 32.</ref>

The Gaia hypothesis was an influence on the [[deep ecology]] movement.<ref>David Landis Barnhill, Roger S. Gottlieb (eds.), ''Deep Ecology and World Religions: New Essays on Sacred Ground'', SUNY Press, 2010, p. 32.</ref>

 

==Details细节==

==Details==

Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs

Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating [[complex system]] involving the [[biosphere]], the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[hydrosphere]]s and the [[pedosphere]], tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.<ref name="vanishing255">Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating [[complex system]] involving the [[biosphere]], the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[hydrosphere]]s and the [[pedosphere]], tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.<ref name="vanishing255">Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>

 

Since life started on Earth, the energy provided by the Sun has increased by 25% to 30%; however, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within the levels of habitability, reaching quite regular low and high margins.  Lovelock has also hypothesised that methanogens produced elevated levels of methane in the early atmosphere, giving a view similar to that found in petrochemical smog, similar in some respects to the atmosphere on Titan. research has suggested that "oxygen shocks" and reduced methane levels led, during the Huronian, Sturtian and Marinoan/Varanger Ice Ages, to a world that very nearly became a solid "snowball". These epochs are evidence against the ability of the pre Phanerozoic biosphere to fully self-regulate.

Since life started on Earth, the energy provided by the Sun has increased by 25% to 30%; however, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within the levels of habitability, reaching quite regular low and high margins.  Lovelock has also hypothesised that methanogens produced elevated levels of methane in the early atmosphere, giving a view similar to that found in petrochemical smog, similar in some respects to the atmosphere on Titan. research has suggested that "oxygen shocks" and reduced methane levels led, during the Huronian, Sturtian and Marinoan/Varanger Ice Ages, to a world that very nearly became a solid "snowball". These epochs are evidence against the ability of the pre Phanerozoic biosphere to fully self-regulate.

自从地球上出现生命以来，太阳提供的能量增加了25% 至30% ; 然而，地球表面温度一直保持在可居住水平之内，达到了相当规则的低和高边缘。洛夫洛克还假设产甲烷菌在早期大气中产生了高浓度的甲烷，这与在石化烟雾中发现的观点相似，在某些方面与土卫六上的大气相似。研究表明，在休伦、斯图尔特和马里诺/瓦朗格冰河时期，“氧气冲击”和甲烷水平的降低，导致了一个几乎变成一个实心“雪球”的世界。这些时期是显生宙之前生物圈完全自我调节能力的证据。

自从地球上有生命以来，太阳提供的能量增加了25%到30%；然而，地球表面温度一直保持在适宜居住的水平上，达到了相当规律的高低边缘。洛夫洛克还假设，产甲烷菌在早期大气中产生了较高水平的甲烷，这与在石化烟雾中发现的观点相似，在某些方面与土卫六上的大气相似。研究表明，在休伦期、斯图尔特期和马里诺/瓦朗格冰期，“氧冲击”和甲烷含量降低导致世界几乎变成了一个坚实的“雪球”。这些时代是前显生宙生物圈完全自我调节能力的证据。

Gaia evolves through a [[Cybernetic#In biology|cybernetic]] [[feedback]] system operated unconsciously by the [[biota (ecology)|biota]], leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially [[microorganisms]], with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's [[Sea surface temperature|surface temperature]], [[atmosphere composition]] and [[ocean]] [[salinity]], powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.<ref>Kleidon, Axel. ''How does the earth system generate and maintain thermodynamic disequilibrium and what does it imply for the future of the planet?''. Article submitted to the ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' on Thu, 10 Mar 2011</ref><!-- Article submitted to Royal Society is not a valid reference. This must be replaced by actual article citation if accepted, or an alternative reference -->

Gaia evolves through a [[Cybernetic#In biology|cybernetic]] [[feedback]] system operated unconsciously by the [[biota (ecology)|biota]], leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially [[microorganisms]], with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's [[Sea surface temperature|surface temperature]], [[atmosphere composition]] and [[ocean]] [[salinity]], powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.<ref>Kleidon, Axel. ''How does the earth system generate and maintain thermodynamic disequilibrium and what does it imply for the future of the planet?''. Article submitted to the ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' on Thu, 10 Mar 2011</ref><!-- Article submitted to Royal Society is not a valid reference. This must be replaced by actual article citation if accepted, or an alternative reference -->

 

Processing of the greenhouse gas CO₂, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability.

Processing of the greenhouse gas CO₂, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability.

The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of [[biogeochemistry]], and it is being investigated also in other fields like [[Earth system science]]. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them.<ref>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 179. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>

The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of [[biogeochemistry]], and it is being investigated also in other fields like [[Earth system science]]. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them.<ref>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 179. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref>

 

受盖亚假说的启发，CLAW 假说提出了一个在海洋生态系统和地球气候之间运行的反馈回路。该假说特别提出，产生二甲硫醚的浮游植物对气候强迫的变化有反应，这些反应导致了一个负反馈循环，稳定了地球大气的温度。

受盖亚假说的启发，CLAW 假说提出了一个在海洋生态系统和地球气候之间运行的反馈回路。该假说特别提出，产生二甲硫醚的浮游植物对气候强迫的变化有反应，这些反应导致了一个负反馈循环，稳定了地球大气的温度。

===Regulation of global surface temperature===

===Regulation of global surface temperature地球表面温度的调控===

[[File:All palaeotemps.png|thumb|480px|Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs]]

[[File:All palaeotemps.png|thumb|480px|Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs]]

Processing of the greenhouse gas CO₂, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability.

Processing of the greenhouse gas CO₂, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability.

 

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic group selection and cooperation between organisms, James Lovelock and Andrew Watson developed a mathematical model, Daisyworld, in which ecological competition underpinned planetary temperature regulation.

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic group selection and cooperation between organisms, James Lovelock and Andrew Watson developed a mathematical model, Daisyworld, in which ecological competition underpinned planetary temperature regulation.

有人批评盖亚假说似乎需要不切实际的群体选择和有机体之间的合作，为了回应这种批评，詹姆斯 · 洛夫洛克和安德鲁 · 沃森建立了一个数学模型---- 雏菊世界，其中生态竞争支撑着地。

有人批评盖亚假说似乎需要不切实际的群体选择和有机体之间的合作，为了回应这种批评，James Lovelock 和 Andrew Watson建立了一个数学模型---- 雏菊世界，其中生态竞争支撑着地。

The [[CLAW hypothesis]], inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a [[feedback|feedback loop]] that operates between [[ocean]] [[ecosystem]]s and the [[Earth]]'s [[climate]].<ref name="CLAW87">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/326655a0 |author=[[Robert Jay Charlson|Charlson, R. J.]], [[James Lovelock|Lovelock, J. E]], Andreae, M. O. and Warren, S. G. |title=Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate |journal=Nature |volume=326 |issue=6114 |pages=655–661 |date=1987 |bibcode=1987Natur.326..655C |ref=harv }}</ref>  The [[hypothesis]] specifically proposes that particular [[phytoplankton]] that produce [[dimethyl sulfide]] are responsive to variations in [[climate forcing]], and that these responses lead to a [[negative feedback|negative feedback loop]] that acts to stabilise the [[temperature]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere]].

The [[CLAW hypothesis]], inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a [[feedback|feedback loop]] that operates between [[ocean]] [[ecosystem]]s and the [[Earth]]'s [[climate]].<ref name="CLAW87">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/326655a0 |author=[[Robert Jay Charlson|Charlson, R. J.]], [[James Lovelock|Lovelock, J. E]], Andreae, M. O. and Warren, S. G. |title=Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate |journal=Nature |volume=326 |issue=6114 |pages=655–661 |date=1987 |bibcode=1987Natur.326..655C |ref=harv }}</ref>  The [[hypothesis]] specifically proposes that particular [[phytoplankton]] that produce [[dimethyl sulfide]] are responsive to variations in [[climate forcing]], and that these responses lead to a [[negative feedback|negative feedback loop]] that acts to stabilise the [[temperature]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere]].

 

Daisyworld examines the energy budget of a planet populated by two different types of plants, black daisies and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the albedo of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet.  The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature.  As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.

Daisyworld examines the energy budget of a planet populated by two different types of plants, black daisies and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the albedo of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet.  The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature.  As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.

Currently the increase in human population and the environmental impact of their activities, such as the multiplication of [[greenhouse gases]] may cause [[negative feedback]]s in the environment to become [[positive feedback]]. Lovelock has stated that this could bring an [[James Lovelock#The revenge of Gaia|extremely accelerated global warming]],<ref>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref> but he has since stated the effects will likely occur more slowly.<ref>Lovelock J., NBC News. [http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/23/11144098-gaia-scientist-james-lovelock-i-was-alarmist-about-climate-change?lite Link] Published 23 April 2012, accessed 22 August 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913163635/http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/23/11144098-gaia-scientist-james-lovelock-i-was-alarmist-about-climate-change?lite |date=13 September 2012 }}</ref>

Currently the increase in human population and the environmental impact of their activities, such as the multiplication of [[greenhouse gases]] may cause [[negative feedback]]s in the environment to become [[positive feedback]]. Lovelock has stated that this could bring an [[James Lovelock#The revenge of Gaia|extremely accelerated global warming]],<ref>Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}</ref> but he has since stated the effects will likely occur more slowly.<ref>Lovelock J., NBC News. [http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/23/11144098-gaia-scientist-james-lovelock-i-was-alarmist-about-climate-change?lite Link] Published 23 April 2012, accessed 22 August 2012. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913163635/http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/04/23/11144098-gaia-scientist-james-lovelock-i-was-alarmist-about-climate-change?lite |date=13 September 2012 }}</ref>

 

洛夫洛克和沃森指出，在有限的条件下，如果太阳的能量输出发生变化，由于竞争而产生的负反馈可以将地球温度稳定在支持生命的数值上，而没有生命的地球则会表现出巨大的温度波动。白色和黑色雏菊的百分比会不断变化，以保持植物繁殖率相等的温度值，使两种生命形式都能茁壮成长。

洛夫洛克和沃森指出，在有限的条件下，如果太阳的能量输出发生变化，由于竞争而产生的负反馈可以将地球温度稳定在支持生命的数值上，而没有生命的地球则会表现出巨大的温度波动。白色和黑色雏菊的百分比会不断变化，以保持植物繁殖率相等的温度值，使两种生命形式都能茁壮成长。

====Daisyworld simulations====

====Daisyworld simulations雏菊世界模拟====

[[File:StandardDaisyWorldRun2color.gif|thumb|280px|Plots from a standard black and white [[Daisyworld]] simulation]]

[[File:StandardDaisyWorldRun2color.gif|thumb|280px|Plots from a standard black and white [[Daisyworld]] simulation]]

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic [[group selection]] and [[Cooperation (evolution)|cooperation]] between organisms, James Lovelock and [[Andrew Watson (scientist)|Andrew Watson]] developed a mathematical model, [[Daisyworld]], in which [[Competition (biology)|ecological competition]] underpinned planetary temperature regulation.<ref name="daisyworld">{{cite journal

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic [[group selection]] and [[Cooperation (evolution)|cooperation]] between organisms, James Lovelock and [[Andrew Watson (scientist)|Andrew Watson]] developed a mathematical model, [[Daisyworld]], in which [[Competition (biology)|ecological competition]] underpinned planetary temperature regulation.<ref name="daisyworld">{{cite journal

 

|date = 1983

|date = 1983

Vostok, Antarctica research station. Current period is at the left. <!-- Unsourced material based on GIMP FX version of this chart. The current version here is correct, original. This verbiage must be removed: Note that current CO₂ levels are more than 390 ppm, far higher than at any time in the last 400,000 years -->]]

Vostok, Antarctica research station. Current period is at the left. <!-- Unsourced material based on GIMP FX version of this chart. The current version here is correct, original. This verbiage must be removed: Note that current CO₂ levels are more than 390 ppm, far higher than at any time in the last 400,000 years -->]]

 

沃斯托克，南极洲研究站。当前期间在左边。<!--基于此图表的GIMP-FX版本的非源材料。现在的版本是正确的，原版的。必须删除这句话：请注意，当前CO2水平超过390ppm，远高于过去40万年来的任何时候-->]  

沃斯托克，南极研究站。本期在左边。< ! -- 基于这个图表的 GIMP FX 版本的非来源材料。这里的当前版本是正确的，原始的。这些废话必须删除: 请注意，目前的 CO < sub > 2 </sub > 水平超过了390ppm，远远高于过去40万年的任何时候 -- > ]

|pages = 286–9

|pages = 286–9

Dry air in the atmosphere of Earth contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases including methane. Lovelock originally speculated that concentrations of oxygen above about 25% would increase the frequency of wildfires and conflagration of forests.  Recent work on the findings of fire-caused charcoal in Carboniferous and Cretaceous coal measures, in geologic periods when O₂ did exceed 25%, has supported Lovelock's contention.  

Dry air in the atmosphere of Earth contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases including methane. Lovelock originally speculated that concentrations of oxygen above about 25% would increase the frequency of wildfires and conflagration of forests.  Recent work on the findings of fire-caused charcoal in Carboniferous and Cretaceous coal measures, in geologic periods when O₂ did exceed 25%, has supported Lovelock's contention.  

地球大气层中的干燥空气大致(按体积计算)含有78.09% 的氮气、20.95% 的氧气、0.93% 的氩气、0.039% 的二氧化碳以及少量的其他气体，包括甲烷。洛夫洛克最初推测，高于25% 的氧气浓度会增加森林大火和森林大火的发生频率。最近在石炭纪和白垩纪煤系地质时期，o < sub > 2 </sub > 确实超过了25% 的火成木炭的研究结果支持了 Lovelock 的论点。

地球大气层中的干燥空气大致(按体积计算)含有78.09% 的氮气、20.95% 的氧气、0.93% 的氩气、0.039% 的二氧化碳以及少量的其他气体，包括甲烷。洛夫洛克最初推测，高于25% 的氧气浓度会增加森林大火和森林大火的发生频率。最近在石炭纪和白垩纪煤系地质时期，当O2确实超过了25%时，火成木炭的研究结果支持了 Lovelock 的论点。

 

Daisyworld examines the [[Earth's energy budget|energy budget]] of a [[planet]] populated by two different types of plants, black [[Asteraceae|daisies]] and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the [[albedo]] of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet.  The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature.  As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.

Daisyworld examines the [[Earth's energy budget|energy budget]] of a [[planet]] populated by two different types of plants, black [[Asteraceae|daisies]] and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the [[albedo]] of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet.  The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature.  As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.

 

Lovelock and Watson showed that, over a limited range of conditions, this [[negative feedback]] due to competition can stabilize the planet's temperature at a value which supports life, if the energy output of the Sun changes, while a planet without life would show wide temperature swings.  The percentage of white and black daisies will continually change to keep the temperature at the value at which the plants' reproductive rates are equal, allowing both life forms to thrive.

Lovelock and Watson showed that, over a limited range of conditions, this [[negative feedback]] due to competition can stabilize the planet's temperature at a value which supports life, if the energy output of the Sun changes, while a planet without life would show wide temperature swings.  The percentage of white and black daisies will continually change to keep the temperature at the value at which the plants' reproductive rates are equal, allowing both life forms to thrive.

Gaia scientists see the participation of living organisms in the carbon cycle as one of the complex processes that maintain conditions suitable for life. The only significant natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) is volcanic activity, while the only significant removal is through the precipitation of carbonate rocks. Carbon precipitation, solution and fixation are influenced by the bacteria and plant roots in soils, where they improve gaseous circulation, or in coral reefs, where calcium carbonate is deposited as a solid on the sea floor. Calcium carbonate is used by living organisms to manufacture carbonaceous tests and shells. Once dead, the living organisms' shells fall to the bottom of the oceans where they generate deposits of chalk and limestone.

Gaia scientists see the participation of living organisms in the carbon cycle as one of the complex processes that maintain conditions suitable for life. The only significant natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) is volcanic activity, while the only significant removal is through the precipitation of carbonate rocks. Carbon precipitation, solution and fixation are influenced by the bacteria and plant roots in soils, where they improve gaseous circulation, or in coral reefs, where calcium carbonate is deposited as a solid on the sea floor. Calcium carbonate is used by living organisms to manufacture carbonaceous tests and shells. Once dead, the living organisms' shells fall to the bottom of the oceans where they generate deposits of chalk and limestone.

It has been suggested that the results were predictable because Lovelock and Watson selected examples that produced the responses they desired.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1023/A:1023494111532 | date = 2003 | last1 = Kirchner | first1 = James W. | journal = Climatic Change | volume = 58 |issue=1–2| pages = 21–45 |title=The Gaia Hypothesis: Conjectures and Refutations | ref = harv}}</ref>

It has been suggested that the results were predictable because Lovelock and Watson selected examples that produced the responses they desired.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1023/A:1023494111532 | date = 2003 | last1 = Kirchner | first1 = James W. | journal = Climatic Change | volume = 58 |issue=1–2| pages = 21–45 |title=The Gaia Hypothesis: Conjectures and Refutations | ref = harv}}</ref>

One of these organisms is Emiliania huxleyi, an abundant coccolithophore algae which also has a role in the formation of clouds. CO₂ excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO₂ locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitations necessary for terrestrial plants. Lately the atmospheric CO₂ concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean algal blooms are also increasing.

One of these organisms is Emiliania huxleyi, an abundant coccolithophore algae which also has a role in the formation of clouds. CO₂ excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO₂ locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitations necessary for terrestrial plants. Lately the atmospheric CO₂ concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean algal blooms are also increasing.

===Regulation of oceanic salinity===

===Regulation of oceanic salinity海洋盐度调节 ===

Lichen and other organisms accelerate the weathering of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO₂ levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO₂ by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.

Lichen and other organisms accelerate the weathering of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO₂ levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO₂ by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.