99
个编辑
更改
无编辑摘要
Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.
Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会影响 Social influence</font>'''由个人为了满足社会环境的需求而改变其行为的多种方式构成。它有多种形式，存在于'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众行为 conformity</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会化 socialization</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 服从 obedience</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 领导力 leadership</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 说服 persuasion</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">销售 sales </font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">营销 marketing</font>'''之中。一般来说，虽然社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家'''<font color="#ff8000"> 赫伯特·凯尔曼 Herbert Kelman</font>'''确定了三种具有广泛意义的社会影响。<ref name="Kelman">{{cite journal|author=Kelman, H.|year=1958|title=Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=2|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1177/002200275800200106|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf}}</ref>
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会影响 Social influence</font>'''由个人为了满足社会环境的需求而改变其行为的多种方式构成。它有多种形式，存在于'''<font color="#ff8000"> 从众行为 conformity</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会化 socialization</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同辈压力 peer pressure</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 服从 obedience</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 领导力 leadership</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 说服 persuasion</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000">销售 sales </font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">营销 marketing</font>'''之中。一般来说，虽然社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特·凯尔曼 Herbert Kelman确定了三种具有广泛意义的社会影响。<ref name="Kelman">{{cite journal|author=Kelman, H.|year=1958|title=Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=2|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1177/002200275800200106|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/hckelman/files/Compliance_identification_and_internalization.pdf}}</ref>
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.
莫顿·多伊奇 Morton Deutsch和哈罗德·杰拉德 Harold Gerard描述了导致人们迎合他人期望的两种心理需求。这两种需求包括：我们对保持正确的需求(信息社会影响)和我们想受喜欢的需求(规范的社会影响) <ref name="Gerard">{{cite journal|author1=Deutsch, M.|author2=Gerard, H. B.|name-list-style=amp|year=1955|title=A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment|journal=Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=629–636|pmid=13286010|doi=10.1037/h0046408|url=http://web.comhem.se/u52239948/08/deutsch55.pdf}}</ref>。信息影响(或社会证明)是指接受他人信息作为现实证据的影响。当人们不确定的时候，信息影响就会发挥作用，这要么是因为刺激本身就是模棱两可的，要么是因为存在社会分歧。规范性影响是一种迎合他人积极期望的影响。在Kelman的类型学中，规范性影响会导致公众顺从，而信息性影响会导致私下接受。根据Kelman1958年的论文，从顺从中获得的满足感来自于接受影响的社会效应(即人们因预期奖励和惩罚厌恶而顺从)。少数群体的影响通常是通过信息社会影响(而不是规范社会影响)发挥作用的，因为多数群体可能并不关心少数群体的喜好<ref name=Kelman />
。
。
Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of [[social psychology]]. For more information, follow the main article links provided.
Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of [[social psychology]]. For more information, follow the main article links provided.
社会影响是一个宽泛的概念，与很多现象都有关。以下列出的几种是'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会心理学 social psychology</font>'''领域研究的几种主要社会影响。如需获取更多相关信息，请点击提供的主要文章链接。
社会影响是一个宽泛的概念，与很多现象都有关。以下列出的几种是'''<font color="#ff8000">社会心理学 social psychology</font>'''领域研究的几种主要社会影响。如需获取更多相关信息，请点击提供的主要文章链接。
===Kelman's varieties===
===Kelman's varieties===
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the ''Journal of Conflict Resolution''. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the ''Journal of Conflict Resolution''. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).
哈佛大学心理学家Herbert Kelman 1958年发表在《冲突解决学报》<ref name="Kelman" />上的论文中定义了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 态度转变 attitude change </font>'''的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是帮助确定社会影响的作用：例如，将公众的服从（行为）与私人的接受（个人信仰）分开。
哈佛大学心理学家Herbert Kelman 1958年发表在《冲突解决学报》<ref name="Kelman" />上的论文中定义了'''<font color="#ff8000">态度转变 attitude change </font>'''的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是帮助确定社会影响的作用：例如，将公众的服从（行为）与私人的接受（个人信仰）分开。
====Compliance====
====Compliance====
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 认同 identification </font>'''是指受为人所敬佩者的影响而改变了态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这种现象。根据Kelman的观点，认同者所期待的关系与行为或态度的变化相关<ref name="Kelman" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000">认同 identification </font>'''是指受为人所敬佩者的影响而改变了态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这种现象。根据Kelman的观点，认同者所期待的关系与行为或态度的变化相关<ref name="Kelman" />。
====Internalization====
====Internalization====
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 内化 internalization </font>'''是对规范的接受过程，这组规范由人或对个人有影响力的组织制订。个人之所以接受这种影响是因为所接受影响的内容本质上是有益的。 它与个人的价值体系是一致的，根据Kelman的观点，内在化的“奖励”是“新行为的内容”<ref name="Kelman" />。
'''<font color="#ff8000">内化 internalization </font>'''是对规范的接受过程，这组规范由人或对个人有影响力的组织制订。个人之所以接受这种影响是因为所接受影响的内容本质上是有益的。 它与个人的价值体系是一致的，根据Kelman的观点，内在化的“奖励”是“新行为的内容”<ref name="Kelman" />。
{{Main article|Psychological manipulation}}
{{Main article|Psychological manipulation}}
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 心理操纵 psychological manipulation </font>'''是一种社会影响，旨在通过辱骂、欺骗或卑鄙的手段改变他人的行为或感知<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref>。这些方法通过促进操纵者的利益，经常以牺牲他人的利益为代价，常被认为具有剥削性、虐待性、狡猾和欺骗性。
'''<font color="#ff8000">心理操纵 psychological manipulation </font>'''是一种社会影响，旨在通过辱骂、欺骗或卑鄙的手段改变他人的行为或感知<ref name=braiker>{{Cite book|title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |first=Harriet B.|last=Braiker |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref>。这些方法通过促进操纵者的利益，经常以牺牲他人的利益为代价，常被认为具有剥削性、虐待性、狡猾和欺骗性。
===Conformity===
===Conformity===
自我实现的预测是一种通过信念和行为之间的正反馈而得以直接或间接实现的预测。一个宣布为真理的预言(实际上是假的)可以通过制造恐怖或混乱的逻辑来对人们造成巨大影响，以至于人们的反应最终让曾经的假预言得以实现。这个术语来自于社会学家'''<font color="#ff8000">罗伯特·金·莫顿 Robert K. Merton </font>'''1948年发表的一篇文章<ref name=SFP-48>{{Citation
自我实现的预测是一种通过信念和行为之间的正反馈而得以直接或间接实现的预测。一个宣布为真理的预言(实际上是假的)可以通过制造恐怖或混乱的逻辑来对人们造成巨大影响，以至于人们的反应最终让曾经的假预言得以实现。这个术语来自于社会学家罗伯特·金·莫顿 Robert K. Merton 1948年发表的一篇文章<ref name=SFP-48>{{Citation
| last = Merton
| last = Merton
Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:
Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:
罗伯特•恰尔迪尼 Robert Cialdini 定义了六种“影响力武器” ，它们可以强化一个人被说服者影响的倾向:
| doi=10.2307/4609267
| doi=10.2307/4609267
Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.
Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.
当行凶的群体都忠诚地保持一致时，社会影响力是最强大的。即使是一个不同意见的例子也可能大大削弱影响力。例如，在米尔格拉姆 Milgram的第一组服从实验中，65% 的参与者服从假的权威人物对同伙实施“最大电击”。在Milgram实验的重复实验中，3个人实施电击（其中2个是同谋) ，一旦同谋中的一个不服从，只有10% 的受试者实施最大电击。
Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The [[Milgram experiment]], Zimbardo's [[Stanford prison experiment]], and the [[Hofling hospital experiment]] are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures.
Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The [[Milgram experiment]], Zimbardo's [[Stanford prison experiment]], and the [[Hofling hospital experiment]] are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures.
Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France. This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past.
Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France. This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past.
文化似乎在个人遵守群体标准的意愿中发挥着作用。Stanley Milgram发现，挪威的从众程度高于法国。这被归因于挪威长期以来的遵守的是社会责任传统，而法国的文化重点则是'''<font color="#ff8000">个人主义
文化似乎在个人遵守群体标准的意愿中发挥着作用。Stanley Milgram发现，挪威的从众程度高于法国。这被归因于挪威长期以来的遵守的是社会责任传统，而法国的文化重点则是'''<font color="#ff8000">个人主义 individualism </font>'''。日本同样具有'''<font color="#ff8000">集体主义 collectivist </font>'''文化，因此具有更高的从众倾向。然而，一项1970年的'''<font color="#ff8000">阿斯克式 Asch-style</font>'''式研究发现，当被疏远时，日本学生更容易产生反从众情绪(他们会给出错误的答案即使团体合作给出的答案是正确) ，这个比例是三分之一，明显高于过去 Asch 研究中的水平。
{{Main article|Abusive power and control}}
{{Main article|Abusive power and control}}
A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness.
A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness.
社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构，这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系，也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域，自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如，'''<font color="#ff8000">克里斯塔基斯 Christakis</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">福勒 Fowler</font>'''发现，社会网络可以传递状态和行为，如肥胖，吸烟，饮酒和幸福。
社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构，这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系，也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域，自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如，克里斯塔基斯 Christakis和福勒 Fowler发现，社会网络可以传递状态和行为，如肥胖，吸烟，饮酒和幸福。
Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:
Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:
社会影响理论是由比伯·拉坦纳 Bibb Latané在1981年提出的。该理论断言，有三个因素会增加一个人对社会影响做出反应的可能性<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Latané | first1 = B | year = 1981 | title = The psychology of social impact | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.36.4.343 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 343–356 }}</ref>：
*''Strength'': The importance of the influencing group to the individual
*''Strength'': The importance of the influencing group to the individual
===Cialdini's "weapons of influence"===
===Cialdini's "weapons of influence"===
西奥迪尼 Cialdini的“影响力武器”
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|