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P.M. Morse writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "states of thermodynamic equilibrium". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.

P.M. Morse writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "states of thermodynamic equilibrium". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.

[[Philip M. Morse|P.M. Morse]] writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "''states of thermodynamic equilibrium''". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.<ref>[[Philip M. Morse|Morse, P.M.]] (1969), pp. 6, 37.</ref>

[[Philip M. Morse|P.M. Morse]] writes that thermodynamics is concerned with "''states of thermodynamic equilibrium''". He also uses the phrase "thermal equilibrium" while discussing transfer of energy as heat between a body and a heat reservoir in its surroundings, though not explicitly defining a special term 'thermal equilibrium'.<ref>[[Philip M. Morse|Morse, P.M.]] (1969), pp. 6, 37.</ref>

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "full thermodynamic equilibrium state".

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "full thermodynamic equilibrium state".

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "''full'' thermodynamic equilibrium state".<ref>Waldram, J.R. (1985), p. 5.</ref>

J.R. Waldram writes of "a definite thermodynamic state". He defines the term "thermal equilibrium" for a system "when its observables have ceased to change over time". But shortly below that definition he writes of a piece of glass that has not yet reached its "''full'' thermodynamic equilibrium state".<ref>Waldram, J.R. (1985), p. 5.</ref>

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, thermodynamic equilibrium is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, thermodynamic equilibrium is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.<ref>Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 21.</ref>

Considering equilibrium states, M. Bailyn writes: "Each intensive variable has its own type of equilibrium." He then defines thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, and material equilibrium. Accordingly, he writes: "If all the intensive variables become uniform, ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' is said to exist." He is not here considering the presence of an external force field.<ref>Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 21.</ref>

J.G. Kirkwood and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.

J.G. Kirkwood and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.

[[John Gamble Kirkwood|J.G. Kirkwood]] and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.<ref>Kirkwood, J.G., Oppenheim, I. (1961), p. 2</ref>

[[John Gamble Kirkwood|J.G. Kirkwood]] and I. Oppenheim define thermodynamic equilibrium as follows: "A system is in a state of ''thermodynamic equilibrium'' if, during the time period allotted for experimentation, (a) its intensive properties are independent of time and (b) no current of matter or energy exists in its interior or at its boundaries with the surroundings." It is evident that they are not restricting the definition to isolated or to closed systems. They do not discuss the possibility of changes that occur with "glacial slowness", and proceed beyond the time period allotted for experimentation. They note that for two systems in contact, there exists a small subclass of intensive properties such that if all those of that small subclass are respectively equal, then all respective intensive properties are equal. States of thermodynamic equilibrium may be defined by this subclass, provided some other conditions are satisfied.<ref>Kirkwood, J.G., Oppenheim, I. (1961), p. 2</ref>

'''<font color="#ff8000">J.G.柯克伍德 J.G.Kirkwood</font>'''和 I.Oppenheim 将热力学平衡定义为: “一个系统处于热力学平衡状态，如果，在分配给实验的时间内，(a)它的密集特性与时间无关，(b)它的内部或与周围环境的边界处没有物质或能量流。”显然，他们没有把定义限制在孤立的或封闭的系统。它们不讨论“缓慢”发生变化的可能性，并且超出了分配给实验的时间范围。他们注意到，对于两个相接触的系统，存在一个密集性质的小子类，如果这个小子类的所有子类都相等，那么所有各自的密集性质都相等。只要满足其他一些条件，热力学平衡状态可以由这个子类定义。

'''<font color="#ff8000">J.G.柯克伍德 J.G.Kirkwood</font>'''和 I.Oppenheim 将热力学平衡定义为: “一个系统处于热力学平衡状态，如果，在分配给实验的时间内，(a)它强度特性与时间无关，(b)它的内部或与周围环境的边界处没有物质或能量流。”显然，他们没有把定义限制在孤立的或封闭的系统。它们不讨论“缓慢”发生变化的可能性，并且超出了分配给实验的时间范围。他们注意到，对于两个相接触的系统，存在一个强度性质的小子类，如果这个小子类的所有子类都相等，那么所有各自的强度性质都相等。只要满足其他一些条件，热力学平衡状态可以由这个子类定义。

==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==

==Characteristics of a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium==