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==Notes==
== Notes 笔记==
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'''{{small|I}}.''' {{Note label|A|I|none}} Darwin was eminent as a [[naturalist]], geologist, [[biologist]], and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a [[medical student]], he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in [[taxidermy]].<ref name=ODNB>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref>
'''{{small|I}}.''' {{Note label|A|I|none}} Darwin was eminent as a [[naturalist]], geologist, [[biologist]], and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a [[medical student]], he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in [[taxidermy]].<ref name=ODNB>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref>
Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist, and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a medical student, he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in taxidermy.
达尔文是一位博物学家，地质学家，生物学家和作家。在担任过医生的助理，和两年的医学生之后，他接受了牧师的教育。同时他还接受过动物标本制作方面的培训。
'''{{small|II}}.''' {{Note label|B|II|none}} [[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for [[biblical literalism]], but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.{{Harv|Browne|1995|pp=186, 414}}
'''{{small|II}}.''' {{Note label|B|II|none}} [[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for [[biblical literalism]], but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.{{Harv|Browne|1995|pp=186, 414}}
Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)
罗伯特·菲茨罗伊在航行之后因圣经直译主义而闻名，但此时他对莱尔的思想颇有兴趣，他们在莱尔要求南美航行考察前相遇。菲茨罗伊在巴塔哥尼亚Patagonia圣克鲁斯河River Santa Cruz登高期间用日记的形式记录了他的观点，即平原其实是海滩高地。但在他返航后，他与一位虔诚的教徒女士结婚，随后便放弃了这些想法。（Browne 1995，第186、414页）
'''{{small|III}}.''' {{Note label|C|III|none}} In the section [[Morphology (biology)|"Morphology"]] of Chapter XIII of ''On the Origin of Species'', Darwin commented on [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=497&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 479]}}</ref>
'''{{small|III}}.''' {{Note label|C|III|none}} In the section [[Morphology (biology)|"Morphology"]] of Chapter XIII of ''On the Origin of Species'', Darwin commented on [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=497&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 479]}}</ref>
In the section "Morphology" of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"[212] and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."
在《物种起源》第十三章的“形态学”部分中，达尔文评论了人类与其他哺乳动物之间的同源异体骨模式，并写道：“人类用来抓东西的手，鼹鼠用来挖掘的爪子，马匹用来跑步的腿，海豚用来游泳的鳍，以及蝙蝠用来飞的翅膀，他们是否都是按照相同的模式构造而成，其实是相同的骨骼长在相同的位置？想想没有什么能比这种猜测更有趣了”。在最后一章中，达尔文还提到“男人的手，蝙蝠的翅膀，海豚的鳍和马的腿，这些骨头构造都是相同的……这显然解释了血统论，或者说是共同祖先学说。这些骨头在缓慢且连续地修正变化以适用它们的新功能。”
'''{{small|IV}}.''' {{Note label|D|IV|1}}{{Note label|D|IV|2}}{{Note label|D|IV|3}}
'''{{small|IV}}.''' {{Note label|D|IV|1}}{{Note label|D|IV|2}}{{Note label|D|IV|3}}
In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' Darwin mentioned [[human evolution|human origins]] in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man" />
In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' Darwin mentioned [[human evolution|human origins]] in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man" />
In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."
达尔文在《物种起源》中的结论中提到了人类起源，“在遥远的将来，我看到了更为重要的研究领域，它拥有广阔的前景。心理学将通过获取所需不同程度的智力和能力，以分阶段级配为基础来深入。人类的起源和历史终将被照亮。”
In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to [[sexual selection]]: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."<ref name=SS_man />
In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to [[sexual selection]]: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."<ref name=SS_man />
In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to sexual selection: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."
在“第六章：理论上的困难”中，他提到了性选择：“出于同一目的，我可能已经引证了足够多关于人类各种族之间的差异事实，这些差异是如此的明显。似乎这些差异的根源可以带给我们一些启示，主要通过特定类型的性选择。但是，如果不输入大量细节，我的推理就会显得很轻率。”
In ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage:
In ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage:
"During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=14&itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text 1]}}</ref> In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1874|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F944&viewtype=text vi]}}</ref>
"During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=14&itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text 1]}}</ref> In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1874|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F944&viewtype=text vi]}}</ref>
In The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage: "During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."[214] In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."
在1871年出版的《人类的由来》中，达尔文在第一段讨论道：
“多年来，我收集了很多关于人类的起源或由来的笔记，我无意对此主题进行发布，更确切地说是我决心不发表，因为我认为这是个人的主见，是我应该由此对自己的观点产生偏见，而非大众。在我的《物种起源》第一版中，足以表明通过这项工作，‘将对人类的起源及其历史产生新的领悟。’这意味着，在尊重人类在地球上所有的表现行为前提下，都必须将其与任何有机物包括在一起。”在1874年第二版的序言中，达尔文增加了对第二点的引用：“一些批评家说过，当我发现无法通过自然选择来解释人的许多结构细节时，我发明了性选择。但是，我在第一版的《物种起源》中就对这一原则给出了可以相当清晰的草图，我在那里指出过它适用于人类。”
'''{{small|V}}.''' {{Note label|E|V|none}} See, for example, WILLA volume 4, ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education]'' by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."
'''{{small|V}}.''' {{Note label|E|V|none}} See, for example, WILLA volume 4, ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education]'' by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."
See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."
例如，参见夏洛特·珀金斯·吉尔曼Charlotte Perkins Gilman的WILLA第4卷，和黛博拉·德·西蒙妮Deborah M. De Simone的《教育女性化Feminization of Education》：“在由达尔文的《物种起源》引起的“智力混乱”时期。吉尔曼与一代成熟的思想家均分享了许多基本的教育思想。在相信个人可以指导人类和社会发展的信念的前提下，许多进步主义者开始将教育视为促进社会发展和解决诸如城市化，贫困或移民等问题的灵丹妙药。”
'''{{small|VI}}.''' {{Note label|F|VI|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Princess Ida]]'', which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
'''{{small|VI}}.''' {{Note label|F|VI|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Princess Ida]]'', which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
另一个例子，请参见吉尔伯特Gilbert和沙利文Sullivan的歌剧《公主艾达Princess Ida》所演唱的歌曲“血统高贵的淑女”，它描述了猿猴中男人（而不是女人！）的血统。
'''{{small|VII}}.''' {{Note label|G|VII|none}} Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from [[John Edmonstone]] in 1826.<ref name=eddy /> Early in the ''Beagle'' voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. {{Harv|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=76 74]}} He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." {{harv|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=264 246]}} Regarding [[Fuegians]], he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like [[Jemmy Button]]: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."{{Harv|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205, 207–208]}}
'''{{small|VII}}.''' {{Note label|G|VII|none}} Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from [[John Edmonstone]] in 1826.<ref name=eddy /> Early in the ''Beagle'' voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. {{Harv|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=76 74]}} He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." {{harv|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=264 246]}} Regarding [[Fuegians]], he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like [[Jemmy Button]]: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."{{Harv|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205, 207–208]}}
Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.[28] Early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." (Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."(Darwin 1845, pp. 205, 207–208)
1826年，约翰·埃德蒙斯顿（John Edmonstone）从达尔文那里汲取了教训，他进一步证实了达尔文关于黑人与欧洲人具有基本的人性并在精神上有许多相似之处的信念。在猎犬号航行的早期，达尔文因为批评费兹罗伊的辩护和对奴隶制的称赞时，几乎失去了在船上的位置。（达尔文1958年，第74页）他在书中写道：“选举中人们所表现出对奴隶制的看法都如此的理所当然。如果英国是第一个完全废除它的欧洲国家，那对英国来说是一件多么骄傲的事！离开英格兰之前，我被告知，在奴隶制国家生活之后，他们相信我所有的观点都会被改变；然而我知道，唯一的变化可能是对黑人特征总结出更高的评价。”（Darwin 1887，p。246）就说火地岛人，他“无法相信野蛮人和文明人之间的区别有多大：会是大于野生动物和驯养动物之间的距离，因为人类具有更大的改良能力”，但他认识并喜欢杰米·巴顿这样的火地岛人：“当我想起他的许多优良品质时，对我来说似乎很美妙，他应该属于我们同一种族，毫无疑问我们拥有同样的性格属性，而我们在这里初次见到他时却是悲惨而堕落的野蛮人。” （Darwin1845年，第205、207-208页）
In the ''Descent of Man'', he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=227 214], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 232]}}</ref>
In the ''Descent of Man'', he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=227 214], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 232]}}</ref>
In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".
在《人类的由来》中，达尔文在表达反对“将所谓的人类种族列为不同的物种”时，提到了火地岛人和埃德蒙斯顿的思想与欧洲人的思想非常相似。
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of [[Patagonia]]n men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"{{harv|Darwin|1845|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F14&pageseq=115 102]}}
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of [[Patagonia]]n men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"{{harv|Darwin|1845|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F14&pageseq=115 102]}}
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"(Darwin 1845, p. 102)
他拒绝虐待土著人民，例如写了巴塔哥尼亚男人，女人和儿童的屠杀，“这里的每个人都完全相信这是最公正的战争，因为它是针对野蛮人的。在这个时代，谁会相信这样的暴行竟然会在基督教文明国家发生？” (Darwin 1845, p. 102)
'''{{small|VIII}}.''' {{Note label|H|VIII|1}}{{Note label|H|VIII|2}} [[Genetics|Geneticists]] studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]".<br />({{Cite news | url =http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html| title =the creation of genetic identity| last = Thurtle| first =Phillip| date =17 December 1996| issue =Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism| volume = 5| ref = |periodical =SEHR| accessdate =11 November 2008}}{{Cite news| url =http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism| title =The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
'''{{small|VIII}}.''' {{Note label|H|VIII|1}}{{Note label|H|VIII|2}} [[Genetics|Geneticists]] studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]".<br />({{Cite news | url =http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html| title =the creation of genetic identity| last = Thurtle| first =Phillip| date =17 December 1996| issue =Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism| volume = 5| ref = |periodical =SEHR| accessdate =11 November 2008}}{{Cite news| url =http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism| title =The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | issue =April 2000| volume = 154| pages = 1419–1426| pmc = 1461012| pmid = 10747041| ref = | periodical = Genetics| accessdate =11 November 2008}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |accessdate=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df= }})
| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | issue =April 2000| volume = 154| pages = 1419–1426| pmc = 1461012| pmid = 10747041| ref = | periodical = Genetics| accessdate =11 November 2008}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |accessdate=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df= }})
Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). "the creation of genetic identity". SEHR. 5 (Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11 November 2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". Genetics. 154 (April 2000). pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
Wilkins, John. "Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)
遗传学家将人类遗传学作为孟德尔遗传来研究，而优生学运动则试图管理社会，重点是英国的社会阶层，以及美国的残疾和种族划分，导致遗传学家将其视为不切实际的伪科学。后来就发生了人类自由交配到反向优生的转变，包括美国的强制性绝育法，以及后期被纳粹德国借用，围绕优劣种族主义和“种族卫生”的思想，将其作为纳粹优生学的基础。(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). "the creation of genetic identity". SEHR. 5 (Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11 November 2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". Genetics. 154 (April 2000). pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
Wilkins, John. "Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)
'''{{small|IX}}.''' {{Note label|I|IX|none}} [[David Quammen]] writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." [[David Quammen]], "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, ''Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, ''On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden'', [[Yale University Press]], 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, ''Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], 222 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
'''{{small|IX}}.''' {{Note label|I|IX|none}} [[David Quammen]] writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." [[David Quammen]], "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, ''Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, ''On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden'', [[Yale University Press]], 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, ''Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], 222 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
{{refend}}
{{refend}}
David Quammen writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
大卫·夸曼David Quammen写下了他的观点，“达尔文转向了这些神秘的植物学研究–出版了多本经过实证研究的，谨慎的进化论书，却“极其令人生厌”–但是至少在某种程度上，让那些为争夺猿猴，天使和灵魂而战的吵闹争论者不再继续打扰他。” David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
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