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A student textbook by F.H. Crawford has a section headed "Thermodynamic Equilibrium". It distinguishes several drivers of flows, and then says: "These are examples of the apparently universal tendency of isolated systems toward a state of complete mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical—or, in a single word, ''thermodynamic—equilibrium.''"<ref>Crawford, F.H. (1963), p. 5.</ref>

在F.H.Crawford的一本学生教科书中，有一个标题为“热力学平衡”的章节。它区分了几种流动的驱动因素，然后说: “这些是孤立系统明显普遍趋向于完全机械、热、化学和电力状态的例子——或者简单地说，热力学平衡状态。”<ref>Crawford, F.H. (1963), p. 5.</ref>

 

H.A. Buchdahl的一本关于经典热力学的专著考虑了热力学系统的平衡，而实际上并没有写热力学平衡一词<ref>Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), p. 8.</ref>。Buchdahl在提到封闭的物质交换系统时写道: “如果一个系统处于一个适当的静态状态，那么它将被称为处于平衡状态。”出于热力学描述的目的，Buchdahl的专著也讨论了非晶态玻璃。它说: “更准确地说，只要实验测试表明‘慢’跃迁实际上是可逆的，玻璃就可以被认为处于平衡状态。”<ref>Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), p. 111.</ref> 通常来说不会将这一条件作为热力学平衡定义的一部分，而是假定相反的情况：如果热力学平衡中的一个物体受到足够慢的过程的影响，则该过程可被视为足够接近可逆，并且该物体在过程中足够接近热力学平衡。<ref>Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. 8.</ref>

 

A monograph on classical thermodynamics by H.A. Buchdahl considers the "equilibrium of a thermodynamic system", without actually writing the phrase "thermodynamic equilibrium". Referring to systems closed to exchange of matter, Buchdahl writes: "If a system is in a terminal condition which is properly static, it will be said to be in ''equilibrium''."<ref>Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), p. 8.</ref> Buchdahl's monograph also discusses amorphous glass, for the purposes of thermodynamic description. It states: "More precisely, the glass may be regarded as being ''in equilibrium'' so long as experimental tests show that 'slow' transitions are in effect reversible."<ref>Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), p. 111.</ref> It is not customary to make this proviso part of the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium, but the converse is usually assumed: that if a body in thermodynamic equilibrium is subject to a sufficiently slow process, that process may be considered to be sufficiently nearly reversible, and the body remains sufficiently nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process.<ref>Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. 8.</ref>

 

 

A. Münster carefully extends his definition of thermodynamic equilibrium for isolated systems by introducing a concept of ''contact equilibrium''. This specifies particular processes that are allowed when considering thermodynamic equilibrium for non-isolated systems, with special concern for open systems, which may gain or lose matter from or to their surroundings. A contact equilibrium is between the system of interest and a system in the surroundings, brought into contact with the system of interest, the contact being through a special kind of wall; for the rest, the whole joint system is isolated. Walls of this special kind were also considered by [[Constantin Carathéodory|C. Carathéodory]], and are mentioned by other writers also. They are selectively permeable. They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example, a wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system of interest. In a contact equilibrium, despite the possible exchange through the selectively permeable wall, the system of interest is changeless, as if it were in isolated thermodynamic equilibrium. This scheme follows the general rule that "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." <ref name="Nster" /> Thermodynamic equilibrium for an open system means that, with respect to every relevant kind of selectively permeable wall, contact equilibrium exists when the respective intensive parameters of the system and surroundings are equal.<ref name="Nster_a" /> This definition does not consider the most general kind of thermodynamic equilibrium, which is through unselective contacts. This definition does not simply state that no current of matter or energy exists in the interior or at the boundaries; but it is compatible with the following definition, which does so state.

A. Münster carefully extends his definition of thermodynamic equilibrium for isolated systems by introducing a concept of ''contact equilibrium''. This specifies particular processes that are allowed when considering thermodynamic equilibrium for non-isolated systems, with special concern for open systems, which may gain or lose matter from or to their surroundings. A contact equilibrium is between the system of interest and a system in the surroundings, brought into contact with the system of interest, the contact being through a special kind of wall; for the rest, the whole joint system is isolated. Walls of this special kind were also considered by [[Constantin Carathéodory|C. Carathéodory]], and are mentioned by other writers also. They are selectively permeable. They may be permeable only to mechanical work, or only to heat, or only to some particular chemical substance. Each contact equilibrium defines an intensive parameter; for example, a wall permeable only to heat defines an empirical temperature. A contact equilibrium can exist for each chemical constituent of the system of interest. In a contact equilibrium, despite the possible exchange through the selectively permeable wall, the system of interest is changeless, as if it were in isolated thermodynamic equilibrium. This scheme follows the general rule that "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." <ref name="Nster" /> Thermodynamic equilibrium for an open system means that, with respect to every relevant kind of selectively permeable wall, contact equilibrium exists when the respective intensive parameters of the system and surroundings are equal.<ref name="Nster_a" /> This definition does not consider the most general kind of thermodynamic equilibrium, which is through unselective contacts. This definition does not simply state that no current of matter or energy exists in the interior or at the boundaries; but it is compatible with the following definition, which does so state.

通过引入接触平衡的概念，A. Münster仔细地扩展了孤立系统热力学平衡的定义。这指定了在考虑非孤立系统的热力学平衡时允许的特定过程，并特别关心开放系统，这些开放系统可能从周围环境获得或丢失物质。感兴趣的系统和周围系统之间的接触平衡，通过一种特殊的壁与之接触，其余的连接系统是孤立的。这种特殊类型的壁也被'''<font color="#ff8000">C.喀喇西奥多里 C.Carathéodory</font>'''考虑过，其他作家也提到过。它们具有选择渗透性。它们可能只对机械功有渗透性，或者只对热有渗透性，或者只对某种特定的化学物质有渗透性。每个接触平衡定义了一个强度参数; 例如，只能透热的壁定义了一个经验温度。<ref name="Nster" />对于感兴趣的体系中每一种化学成分，都可以存在接触平衡。在接触平衡中，尽管有可能通过选择性渗透壁进行交换，但是感兴趣的系统是不变的，好像它处在孤立的热力学平衡。<ref name="Nster_a" /> 这个方案遵循的一般规则是: “ ... ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和特定实验条件下的平衡。”

 

通过引入接触平衡的概念，A. Münster仔细地扩展了孤立系统热力学平衡的定义。这指定了在考虑非孤立系统的热力学平衡时允许的特定过程，并特别关心开放系统，这些开放系统可能从周围环境获得或丢失物质。感兴趣的系统和周围系统之间的接触平衡，通过一种特殊的壁与之接触，其余的连接系统是孤立的。这种特殊类型的壁也被'''<font color="#ff8000">C.喀喇西奥多里 C.Carathéodory</font>'''考虑过，其他作家也提到过。它们具有选择渗透性。它们可能只对机械功有渗透性，或者只对热有渗透性，或者只对某种特定的化学物质有渗透性。每个接触平衡定义了一个强度参数; 例如，只能透热的壁定义了一个经验温度。对于感兴趣的体系中每一种化学成分，都可以存在接触平衡。在接触平衡中，尽管有可能通过选择性渗透壁进行交换，但是感兴趣的系统是不变的，好像它处在孤立的热力学平衡。这个方案遵循的一般规则是: “ ... ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和特定实验条件下的平衡。”