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In 1923, [[Jerzy Neyman|Neyman]] introduced the concept of a potential outcome, but his paper was not translated from Polish to English until 1990.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=9H0dDQAAQBAJ|page=271}} 271]}}

In 1923, [[Jerzy Neyman|Neyman]] introduced the concept of a potential outcome, but his paper was not translated from Polish to English until 1990.<ref name=":1" />

Counterfactuals can indicate the existence of a causal relationship. Models that can answer counterfactuals allow precise interventions whose consequences can be predicted. At the extreme, such models are accepted as physical laws (as in the laws of physics, e.g., inertia, which says that if force is not applied to a stationary object, it will not move).

Counterfactuals can indicate the existence of a causal relationship. Models that can answer counterfactuals allow precise interventions whose consequences can be predicted. At the extreme, such models are accepted as physical laws (as in the laws of physics, e.g., inertia, which says that if force is not applied to a stationary object, it will not move).

因果图是一个有向图，它显示了因果模型中变量之间的因果关系。因果关系图包括一组变量(或节点)。每个节点通过一个箭头连接到一个或多个其他节点，对这些节点有因果影响。箭头描述了因果关系的方向，例如，一个箭头连接变量 a 和 b 与箭头在 b 表示 a 的变化导致 b 的变化(与一个相关的概率)。路径是在两个节点之间按照因果箭头进行的图的遍历。

因果图是一个有向图，它显示了因果模型中变量之间的因果关系。因果关系图包括一组变量(或节点)。每个节点通过一个箭头连接到一个或多个其他节点，对这些节点有因果影响。箭头描述了因果关系的方向，例如，一个箭头连接变量 a 和 b 与箭头在 b 表示 a 的变化导致 b 的变化(与一个相关的概率)。路径是在两个节点之间按照因果箭头进行的图的遍历。

In 1973 [[David Lewis (philosopher)|Lewis]] advocated replacing correlation with but-for causality (counterfactuals). He referred to humans' ability to envision alternative worlds in which a cause did or not occur and in which effect an appeared only following its cause.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|[{{google books|plainurl=y|id=9H0dDQAAQBAJ|page=266}} 266]}} In 1974 [[Donald Rubin|Rubin]] introduced the notion of "potential outcomes" as a language for asking causal questions.<ref name=":1" />

In 1973 [[David Lewis (philosopher)|Lewis]] advocated replacing correlation with but-for causality (counterfactuals). He referred to humans' ability to envision alternative worlds in which a cause did or not occur and in which effect an appeared only following its cause.<ref name=":1" /> In 1974 [[Donald Rubin|Rubin]] introduced the notion of "potential outcomes" as a language for asking causal questions.<ref name=":1" />