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'''Counterfactual conditionals''' (also ''subjunctive'' or ''X-marked'') are [[conditional sentence]]s which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. <!-- this is example is from Iatridou (2000), ex (47c) on p. 244 --> "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactuals are contrasted with [[indicative conditionals|indicatives]], which are generally restricted to discussing open possibilities. Counterfactuals are characterized grammatically by their use of [[Counterfactual conditional#Fake tense|fake tense morphology]], which some languages use in combination with other kinds of [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] including [[Counterfactual conditional#Fake aspect|aspect]] and [[Counterfactual conditional#mood|mood]].
 
'''Counterfactual conditionals''' (also ''subjunctive'' or ''X-marked'') are [[conditional sentence]]s which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. <!-- this is example is from Iatridou (2000), ex (47c) on p. 244 --> "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactuals are contrasted with [[indicative conditionals|indicatives]], which are generally restricted to discussing open possibilities. Counterfactuals are characterized grammatically by their use of [[Counterfactual conditional#Fake tense|fake tense morphology]], which some languages use in combination with other kinds of [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] including [[Counterfactual conditional#Fake aspect|aspect]] and [[Counterfactual conditional#mood|mood]].
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反事实条件句(也是虚拟或 x 标记的)是条件句，用来讨论在不同情况下什么是真的，例如:。“如果彼得相信鬼魂的存在，他就会害怕来到这里。”反事实与标记形成对比，标记一般只限于讨论开放的可能性。反事实动词的语法特征是使用虚假的时态形态，这种虚假的时态形态与体、语气等其他形态结合使用。
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反事实条件句（虚拟条件或X标记的）是用来讨论在不同情况下什么为真的的条件句。例如：如果彼得相信鬼魂的存在，他就会害怕来到这里。反事实句与指示句形成对比，后者一般只限于讨论开放的可能性。反事实动词的语法特征是使用虚拟时态语法，这种虚拟时态语法与时态和语态等其他语法结合使用。
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Counterfactuals are one of the most studied phenomena in [[philosophical logic]], [[formal semantics (natural language)|formal semantics]], and [[philosophy of language]]. They were first discussed as a problem for the [[material conditional]] analysis of conditionals, which treats them all as trivially true. Starting in the 1960s, philosophers and linguists developed the now-classic [[possible world]] approach, in which a counterfactual's truth hinges on its consequent holding at certain possible worlds where its antecedent holds. More recent formal analyses have treated them using tools such as [[causal model]]s and [[dynamic semantics]]. Other research has addressed their metaphysical, psychological, and grammatical underpinnings, while applying some of the resultant insights to fields including history, marketing, and epidemiology.
 
Counterfactuals are one of the most studied phenomena in [[philosophical logic]], [[formal semantics (natural language)|formal semantics]], and [[philosophy of language]]. They were first discussed as a problem for the [[material conditional]] analysis of conditionals, which treats them all as trivially true. Starting in the 1960s, philosophers and linguists developed the now-classic [[possible world]] approach, in which a counterfactual's truth hinges on its consequent holding at certain possible worlds where its antecedent holds. More recent formal analyses have treated them using tools such as [[causal model]]s and [[dynamic semantics]]. Other research has addressed their metaphysical, psychological, and grammatical underpinnings, while applying some of the resultant insights to fields including history, marketing, and epidemiology.
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反事实是哲学逻辑、形式语义学和语言哲学中研究最多的现象之一。它们首先作为条件句的实质条件分析的问题被讨论，条件句把它们都当作是微不足道的真实。从20世纪60年代开始，哲学家和语言学家发展出现在经典的可能世界方法，在这种方法中，反事实的真理取决于它在某些可能世界中的后果，而这些可能世界的前因是成立的。最近的形式化分析使用因果模型和动态语义等工具对它们进行了处理。其他研究已经解决了他们的形而上学，心理学和语法基础，同时将一些结果的见解应用到包括历史，市场营销和流行病学领域。
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反事实是哲学逻辑、形式语义学和语言哲学中研究最多的现象之一。它们首先作为条件句的实质条件分析的问题被讨论，条件句把它们都当作是微不足道的真实。从20世纪60年代开始，哲学家和语言学家发展出现在经典的可能世界方法，在这种方法中，反事实的真理取决于它在某些可能世界中的后果，而这些可能世界的前因是成立的。最近的形式化分析使用因果模型和动态语义等工具对它们进行了处理。其他研究已经解决了他们的形而上学、心理学和语法基础，同时将一些结果的见解应用到包括历史，市场营销和流行病学领域。
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The difference between [[indicative conditional|indicative]] and counterfactual conditionals can be illustrated by the following [[minimal pair]]:
 
The difference between [[indicative conditional|indicative]] and counterfactual conditionals can be illustrated by the following [[minimal pair]]:
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The difference between indicative and counterfactual conditionals can be illustrated by the following minimal pair:
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指示条件句和反事实条件句之间的区别可以用下面的简单例子来说明：
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指示性条件句和反事实条件句之间的区别可以用下面的最小对来说明:
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# '''Indicative Conditional''': If it ''is'' raining right now, then Sally ''is'' inside.  
 
# '''Indicative Conditional''': If it ''is'' raining right now, then Sally ''is'' inside.  
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Indicative Conditional: If it is raining right now, then Sally is inside.
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# ''指示条件句'''： 如果现在正在下雨，那么Sally 就在里面。
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直陈条件: 如果现在正在下雨，那么 Sally 就在里面。
      
# '''Simple Past Counterfactual''': If it ''was raining'' <!-- See discussion on talk page of "was" vs "were" --> right now, then Sally ''would be'' inside.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Prince |first1=Kilu |date=2019 |title=Counterfactuality and past |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6.pdf |journal=Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=42 |issue=6|pages=577–615 |doi=10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6 |s2cid=181778834 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Karawani |first=Hadil |date=2014 |title=The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically |page=186 |publisher=Universiteit van Amsterdam |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1695453/142017_thesis.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Linguistic Society of America">{{cite conference |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/SALT/article/view/27.547 |title=Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals |last1=Schulz |first1=Katrin |date=2017 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |book-title=Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory. |pages=547–570 |conference= Semantics and Linguistic Theory.|doi=10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney | last2=Pullum |first2=Geoff |date=2002 |title= The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521431460|pages=85–86}}</ref>
 
# '''Simple Past Counterfactual''': If it ''was raining'' <!-- See discussion on talk page of "was" vs "were" --> right now, then Sally ''would be'' inside.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Prince |first1=Kilu |date=2019 |title=Counterfactuality and past |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6.pdf |journal=Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=42 |issue=6|pages=577–615 |doi=10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6 |s2cid=181778834 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Karawani |first=Hadil |date=2014 |title=The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically |page=186 |publisher=Universiteit van Amsterdam |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1695453/142017_thesis.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Linguistic Society of America">{{cite conference |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/SALT/article/view/27.547 |title=Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals |last1=Schulz |first1=Katrin |date=2017 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |book-title=Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory. |pages=547–570 |conference= Semantics and Linguistic Theory.|doi=10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney | last2=Pullum |first2=Geoff |date=2002 |title= The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521431460|pages=85–86}}</ref>
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  Simple Past Counterfactual: If it was raining <!-- See discussion on talk page of "was" vs "were" --> right now, then Sally would be inside.
 
  Simple Past Counterfactual: If it was raining <!-- See discussion on talk page of "was" vs "were" --> right now, then Sally would be inside.
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简单过去反事实: 如果现在正在下雨，见聊天页面" was" vs" were" -- > ，那么萨莉就会在里面。
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# ''简单过去反事实'''：如果现在正在下雨，那么Sally就会在里面。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Prince |first1=Kilu |date=2019 |title=Counterfactuality and past |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6.pdf |journal=Linguistics and Philosophy |volume=42 |issue=6|pages=577–615 |doi=10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6 |s2cid=181778834 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Karawani |first=Hadil |date=2014 |title=The Real, the Fake, and the Fake Fake in Counterfactual Conditionals, Crosslinguistically |page=186 |publisher=Universiteit van Amsterdam |url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1695453/142017_thesis.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Linguistic Society of America">{{cite conference |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/SALT/article/view/27.547 |title=Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals |last1=Schulz |first1=Katrin |date=2017 |publisher=Linguistic Society of America |book-title=Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory. |pages=547–570 |conference= Semantics and Linguistic Theory.|doi=10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney | last2=Pullum |first2=Geoff |date=2002 |title= The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521431460|pages=85–86}}</ref>
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