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==Bottom-up engineering of living artificial cells==

==Bottom-up engineering of living artificial cells==

The German pathologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell;  "''Omnis cellula e cellula''".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Virchow RL | date = 1858 | title = Die cellularpathologie in ihrer begründung auf physiologische und pathologische gewebelehre | url = https://archive.org/details/diecellularpatho1858virc | trans-title = Cellular pathology in its justification of physiological and pathological histology | language = de | series = Zwanzig Vorlesungen gehalten wahrend der Monate Februar, Marz und April 1858 | publisher = Verlag von August Hirschwald | location = Berlin | page = xv }}</ref> Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[Translation (biology)|translation]] reactions allow the expression of many [[genes]], but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.

The German pathologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] brought forward the idea that not only does life arise from cells, but every cell comes from another cell;  "''Omnis cellula e cellula''".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Virchow RL | date = 1858 | title = Die cellularpathologie in ihrer begründung auf physiologische und pathologische gewebelehre | url = https://archive.org/details/diecellularpatho1858virc | trans-title = Cellular pathology in its justification of physiological and pathological histology | language = de | series = Zwanzig Vorlesungen gehalten wahrend der Monate Februar, Marz und April 1858 | publisher = Verlag von August Hirschwald | location = Berlin | page = xv }}</ref> Until now, most attempts to create an artificial cell have only created a package that can mimic certain tasks of the cell. Advances in cell-free [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[Translation (biology)|translation]] reactions allow the expression of many [[genes]], but these efforts are far from producing a fully operational cell.

Heavy investing in biology has been done by large companies such as ExxonMobil, who has partnered with Synthetic Genomics Inc; Craig Venter's own biosynthetics company in the development of fuel from algae.

Heavy investing in biology has been done by large companies such as ExxonMobil, who has partnered with Synthetic Genomics Inc; Craig Venter's own biosynthetics company in the development of fuel from algae.

As of 2016, ''[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]'' is the only organism used as a starting point for engineering a minimal cell, since it has the smallest known genome that can be cultivated under laboratory conditions; the wild-type variety has 482, and removing exactly 100 genes deemed non-essential resulted in a viable strain with improved growth rates.  Reduced-genome ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' is considered more useful, and viable strains have been developed with 15% of the genome removed.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bfd7d06c-d3ae-11e5-a4b5-01aa75ed71a1/language-en|title=Opinion on synthetic biology II: Risk assessment methodologies and safety aspects |date=2016-02-12|language=en| author = EU Directorate-General for Health and Consumers |publisher=Publications Office |doi=10.2772/63529 }}</ref>{{Rp|29–30}}

As of 2016, ''[[Mycoplasma genitalium]]'' is the only organism used as a starting point for engineering a minimal cell, since it has the smallest known genome that can be cultivated under laboratory conditions; the wild-type variety has 482, and removing exactly 100 genes deemed non-essential resulted in a viable strain with improved growth rates.  Reduced-genome ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' is considered more useful, and viable strains have been developed with 15% of the genome removed.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=https://publications.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/bfd7d06c-d3ae-11e5-a4b5-01aa75ed71a1/language-en|title=Opinion on synthetic biology II: Risk assessment methodologies and safety aspects |date=2016-02-12|language=en| author = EU Directorate-General for Health and Consumers |publisher=Publications Office |doi=10.2772/63529 }}</ref>{{Rp|29–30}}

In the 1970s, researchers were able to introduce enzymes, proteins and hormones to biodegradable microcapsules, later leading to clinical use in diseases such as Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Although Chang's initial research focused on artificial red blood cells, only in the mid-1990s were biodegradable artificial red blood cells developed. Artificial cells in biological cell encapsulation were first used in the clinic in 1994 for treatment in a diabetic patient and since then other types of cells such as hepatocytes, adult stem cells and genetically engineered cells have been encapsulated and are under study for use in tissue regeneration.

In the 1970s, researchers were able to introduce enzymes, proteins and hormones to biodegradable microcapsules, later leading to clinical use in diseases such as Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Although Chang's initial research focused on artificial red blood cells, only in the mid-1990s were biodegradable artificial red blood cells developed. Artificial cells in biological cell encapsulation were first used in the clinic in 1994 for treatment in a diabetic patient and since then other types of cells such as hepatocytes, adult stem cells and genetically engineered cells have been encapsulated and are under study for use in tissue regeneration.

===Materials===

===Materials===