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Quantum Holonomy theory is a theory of the lowest possible reduction.
Quantum Holonomy theory is a theory of the lowest possible reduction.
量子整体论是一种最低可能的还原理论。
Others argue that inappropriate use of reductionism limits our understanding of complex systems. In particular, ecologist Robert Ulanowicz says that science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization. He advocates (and uses) information theory as a framework to study propensities in natural systems. Ulanowicz attributes these criticisms of reductionism to the philosopher Karl Popper and biologist Robert Rosen.
Others argue that inappropriate use of reductionism limits our understanding of complex systems. In particular, ecologist Robert Ulanowicz says that science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization. He advocates (and uses) information theory as a framework to study propensities in natural systems. Ulanowicz attributes these criticisms of reductionism to the philosopher Karl Popper and biologist Robert Rosen.
其他人认为，不恰当使用还原论限制了我们对复杂系统的理解。特别是，生态学家罗伯特·尤兰维奇（Robert Ulanowicz）说，科学必须发展技术来研究大规模组织影响小规模组织的方式，以及反馈循环在给定层次上创造结构的方式，而不受较低层次的组织细节的影响。他提倡使用信息理论作为研究自然系统倾向的框架。乌兰诺维茨（Ulanowicz）把这些还原论的批评归因于哲学家卡尔 · 波普尔（ Karl Popper ）和生物学家罗伯特 · 罗森（Robert Rosen）。
Type ontological reductionism is the idea that every type of item is a sum type of item, and that every perceivable type of item is a sum of types of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Type ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is often rejected.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_reductionism.html|title=Reductionism – By Branch / Doctrine – The Basics of Philosophy|work=philosophybasics.com}}</ref>
Type ontological reductionism is the idea that every type of item is a sum type of item, and that every perceivable type of item is a sum of types of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Type ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is often rejected.<ref name=":7">{{cite web|url=http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_reductionism.html|title=Reductionism – By Branch / Doctrine – The Basics of Philosophy|work=philosophybasics.com}}</ref>
类型本体论还原论的观点是，每一种类型的事物都是事物的总和，每一种可感知的事物类型都是复杂程度较低的事物类型的和。将生物事物还原为化学事物的类型本体论已被普遍摒弃<ref name=":7" />。
Stuart Kauffman has argued that complex systems theory and phenomena such as emergence pose limits to reductionism. Emergence is especially relevant when systems exhibit historicity. Emergence is strongly related to nonlinearity. The limits of the application of reductionism are claimed to be especially evident at levels of organization with greater complexity, including living cells, neural networks, ecosystems, society, and other systems formed from assemblies of large numbers of diverse components linked by multiple feedback loops.
Stuart Kauffman has argued that complex systems theory and phenomena such as emergence pose limits to reductionism. Emergence is especially relevant when systems exhibit historicity. Emergence is strongly related to nonlinearity. The limits of the application of reductionism are claimed to be especially evident at levels of organization with greater complexity, including living cells, neural networks, ecosystems, society, and other systems formed from assemblies of large numbers of diverse components linked by multiple feedback loops.
斯图尔特 · 考夫曼认为复杂系统理论和涌现现象对还原论构成了限制。当系统表现出历史性时，涌现特别重要。涌现与非线性密切相关。还原论应用的局限性在更复杂的组织层面上尤其明显，包括活细胞、神经网络、生态系统、社会，以及由多个反馈回路连接的大量不同组成部分组成的其他系统。
斯图尔特 · 考夫曼（Stuart Kauffman）认为复杂系统理论和涌现现象对还原论构成了限制。当系统表现出历史性时，涌现尤为重要。涌现与非线性密切相关。还原论应用的局限性在更复杂的组织层次上尤其明显，包括活细胞、神经网络、生态系统、社会，以及由多个反馈回路连接的大量不同组成部分组成的其他系统。
[[Michael Ruse]] has criticized ontological reductionism as an improper argument against [[vitalism]].<ref>[http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/29/3/1061.pdf] Michael Ruse, "Do Organisms Exist?", Am. Zool., 29: 1061–1066 (1989)</ref>
[[Michael Ruse]] has criticized ontological reductionism as an improper argument against [[vitalism]].<ref>[http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/29/3/1061.pdf] Michael Ruse, "Do Organisms Exist?", Am. Zool., 29: 1061–1066 (1989)</ref>
迈克尔·鲁斯（[[Michael Ruse]]）批评本体论还原论是对活力论的一种不恰当的论证。
Nobel laureate Philip Warren Anderson used the idea that symmetry breaking is an example of an emergent phenomenon in his 1972 Science paper "More is different" to make an argument about the limitations of reductionism. One observation he made was that the sciences can be arranged roughly in a linear hierarchy—particle physics, solid state physics, chemistry, molecular biology, cellular biology, physiology, psychology, social sciences—in that the elementary entities of one science obeys the principles of the science that precedes it in the hierarchy; yet this does not imply that one science is just an applied version of the science that precedes it. He writes that "At each stage, entirely new laws, concepts and generalizations are necessary, requiring inspiration and creativity to just as great a degree as in the previous one. Psychology is not applied biology nor is biology applied chemistry."
Nobel laureate Philip Warren Anderson used the idea that symmetry breaking is an example of an emergent phenomenon in his 1972 Science paper "More is different" to make an argument about the limitations of reductionism. One observation he made was that the sciences can be arranged roughly in a linear hierarchy—particle physics, solid state physics, chemistry, molecular biology, cellular biology, physiology, psychology, social sciences—in that the elementary entities of one science obeys the principles of the science that precedes it in the hierarchy; yet this does not imply that one science is just an applied version of the science that precedes it. He writes that "At each stage, entirely new laws, concepts and generalizations are necessary, requiring inspiration and creativity to just as great a degree as in the previous one. Psychology is not applied biology nor is biology applied chemistry."
诺贝尔经济学奖获得者菲利普·沃伦·安德森（Philip Warren Anderson）在他1972年发表在《科学》（Science）杂志的论文《More is different》中使用了对称性破缺是一个涌现现象的例子来论证还原论的局限性。他观察到，科学可以大致按线性层次排列——粒子物理学、固体物理学、化学、分子生物学、细胞生物学、生理学、心理学、社会科学——一门科学的基本实体遵循在层次中先于它的科学原理的原则。然而，这并不意味着一门科学只是先于它的科学的应用版本。他写道: “在每一个阶段，全新的法则、概念和概括都是必要的，需要灵感和创造力，就像前一个阶段一样。心理学不是应用生物学，生物学也不是应用化学。”
Disciplines such as cybernetics and systems theory imply non-reductionism, sometimes to the extent of explaining phenomena at a given level of hierarchy in terms of phenomena at a higher level, in a sense, the opposite of reductionism.
Disciplines such as cybernetics and systems theory imply non-reductionism, sometimes to the extent of explaining phenomena at a given level of hierarchy in terms of phenomena at a higher level, in a sense, the opposite of reductionism.
诸如控制论和系统论这样的学科隐含着非还原论，有时达到了用更高层次的现象来解释特定层次上的现象的程度，在某种意义上，这是还原论的对立面。
Methodological reductionism is the position that the best scientific strategy is to attempt to reduce explanations to the smallest possible entities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Montague|first=Gerard P.|title=Who Am I? Who Is She?: A Naturalistic, Holistic, Somatic Approach to Personal Identity|publisher=Transaction Books|year=2012|isbn=978-3-86838-144-3|location=Piscataway, NJ|pages=308}}</ref> In a biological context, this means attempting to explain all biological phenomena in terms of their underlying biochemical and molecular processes.<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Reductionism in Biology |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/reduction-biology/ |last1=Brigandt |first1=Ingo |date=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |last2=Love |first2=Alan |access-date=2019-04-28}}</ref> Claim of efficacy is demonstrated that the gene – unit of classical heredity – is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a macro-molecule.<ref name=":1" />
Methodological reductionism is the position that the best scientific strategy is to attempt to reduce explanations to the smallest possible entities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Montague|first=Gerard P.|title=Who Am I? Who Is She?: A Naturalistic, Holistic, Somatic Approach to Personal Identity|publisher=Transaction Books|year=2012|isbn=978-3-86838-144-3|location=Piscataway, NJ|pages=308}}</ref> In a biological context, this means attempting to explain all biological phenomena in terms of their underlying biochemical and molecular processes.<ref name=":6">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Reductionism in Biology |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/reduction-biology/ |last1=Brigandt |first1=Ingo |date=2017 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |last2=Love |first2=Alan |access-date=2019-04-28}}</ref> Claim of efficacy is demonstrated that the gene – unit of classical heredity – is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a macro-molecule.<ref name=":1" />
Statistical mechanics can be considered as a reconciliation of macroscopic thermodynamic laws with the reductionist method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of microscopic components.
方法论还原论认为，最好的科学策略是试图将解释减少为最小的可能实体<ref name=":1" /> 。在生物学的背景下，这意味着从其潜在的生物化学和分子过程来解释所有生物现象<ref name=":6" />。有力的证明是，基因（经典遗传单位）实质上是一种大分子——脱氧核糖核酸（DNA）<ref name=":1" />。统计力学则可以被认为是宏观热力学定律与用微观组分解释宏观性质的还原方法的调和。
方法论还原论认为，最好的科学策略是试图将解释减少为最小的可能实体<ref name=":1" /> 。在生物学的背景下，这意味着从其潜在的生物化学和分子过程来解释所有生物现象<ref name=":6" />。有力的证明是，基因（经典遗传单位）实质上是一种大分子——脱氧核糖核酸（DNA）<ref name=":1" />。统计力学则可以被认为是宏观热力学定律与用微观组分解释宏观性质的还原方法的调和。
In mathematics, reductionism can be interpreted as the philosophy that all mathematics can (or ought to) be based on a common foundation, which for modern mathematics is usually axiomatic set theory. Ernst Zermelo was one of the major advocates of such an opinion; he also developed much of axiomatic set theory. It has been argued that the generally accepted method of justifying mathematical axioms by their usefulness in common practice can potentially weaken Zermelo's reductionist claim.
In mathematics, reductionism can be interpreted as the philosophy that all mathematics can (or ought to) be based on a common foundation, which for modern mathematics is usually axiomatic set theory. Ernst Zermelo was one of the major advocates of such an opinion; he also developed much of axiomatic set theory. It has been argued that the generally accepted method of justifying mathematical axioms by their usefulness in common practice can potentially weaken Zermelo's reductionist claim.
在数学中，还原论可以解释为所有数学都可以或应该建立在一个共同基础上的哲学，而对于现代数学来说，这个基础通常是公理化集合论。策梅洛（Ernst Zermelo）是这种观点的主要倡导者之一，他也对公理化集合论做出了许多发展。有人认为，用数学公理在普通实践中的有用性来证明数学公理的普遍接受的方法，可能会削弱泽梅洛的还原论主张。
Theory reduction is the process by which a more general theory absorbs a special theory.<ref name=":0" /> For example, both [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] laws of the motion of the [[planet]]s and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s theories of motion formulated for terrestrial objects are reducible to Newtonian theories of mechanics because all the explanatory power of the former are contained within the latter. Furthermore, the reduction is considered beneficial because [[Newtonian mechanics]] is a more general theory—that is, it explains more events than Galileo's or Kepler's. Besides scientific theories, theory reduction more generally can be the process by which one explanation subsumes another.
Theory reduction is the process by which a more general theory absorbs a special theory.<ref name=":0" /> For example, both [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] laws of the motion of the [[planet]]s and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s theories of motion formulated for terrestrial objects are reducible to Newtonian theories of mechanics because all the explanatory power of the former are contained within the latter. Furthermore, the reduction is considered beneficial because [[Newtonian mechanics]] is a more general theory—that is, it explains more events than Galileo's or Kepler's. Besides scientific theories, theory reduction more generally can be the process by which one explanation subsumes another.
理论还原是一个更一般的而理论吸收一个特殊的理论的过程。例如，开普勒的行星运动定律和伽利略的地球物体运动理论都可以还原为牛顿力学理论，因为前者的所有解释力都包含在后者之中。此外，这种还原被认为是有好处的，因为牛顿力学是一个更普遍的理论——也就是说，它比伽利略或开普勒的理论解释了更多的事件。除了科学理论之外，理论归纳通常是一种解释包含另一种解释的过程。
Jouko Väänänen has argued for second-order logic as a foundation for mathematics instead of set theory, whereas others have argued for category theory as a foundation for certain aspects of mathematics.
Jouko Väänänen has argued for second-order logic as a foundation for mathematics instead of set theory, whereas others have argued for category theory as a foundation for certain aspects of mathematics.
Jouko Väänänen认为二阶逻辑是数学的基础，而不是集合论，而其他人则认为范畴论是数学某些方面的基础。
== In science ==
== In science ==