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Teleconnections were first noted by the British meteorologist Sir Gilbert Walker in the late 19th century, through computation of the correlation between time series of atmospheric pressure, temperature and rainfall. They served as a building block for the understanding of climate variability, by showing that the latter was not purely random.

Teleconnections were first noted by the British meteorologist Sir Gilbert Walker in the late 19th century, through computation of the correlation between time series of atmospheric pressure, temperature and rainfall. They served as a building block for the understanding of climate variability, by showing that the latter was not purely random.

19世纪末 ，英国气象学家吉尔伯特·沃克爵士在计算大气压力、气温和降雨量时间序列数据之间的相关性时，首次注意到了遥相关现象。遥相关现象表明气候变化并不是完全随机的，而是相互影响的，遥相关成为理解气候变异的关键。

19世纪末 ，英国气象学家吉尔伯特·沃克爵士在计算气压、气温和降雨的时间序列相关性时，首次注意到了遥相关现象。遥相关现象表明气候变化并不是单纯随机的，这成为理解气候变异的关键。

Indeed, the term [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) is an implicit acknowledgment that the phenomenon underlies variability in several locations at once. It was later noticed that associated teleconnections occurred all over North America, as embodied by the [[Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern]].

Indeed, the term [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) is an implicit acknowledgment that the phenomenon underlies variability in several locations at once. It was later noticed that associated teleconnections occurred all over North America, as embodied by the [[Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern]].

Indeed, the term El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an implicit acknowledgment that the phenomenon underlies variability in several locations at once. It was later noticed that associated teleconnections occurred all over North America, as embodied by the Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern.

Indeed, the term El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an implicit acknowledgment that the phenomenon underlies variability in several locations at once. It was later noticed that associated teleconnections occurred all over North America, as embodied by the Pacific–North American teleconnection pattern.

事实上，厄尔尼诺-南方涛动(ENSO)这个术语暗示了一种认识，即这种现象是几个地区同时发生变化的基础。后来人们注意到，相关的遥相关发生在整个北美洲，具体表现为太平洋-北美洲的遥相关模式。

事实上，厄尔尼诺-南方涛动(ENSO)这个术语暗示了一种认识，即这种现象构成了数个地区同时发生变化的基础。人们后来注意到，关联的遥相关发生在整个北美洲地区，正如太平洋-北美洲遥相关模型所表现的一样。

In the 1980s, improved observations allowed detection of teleconnections at larger distances throughout the [[troposphere]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<0784:TITGHF>2.0.CO;2|year=1981|volume=109|pages=784|title=Teleconnections in the Geopotential Height Field during the Northern Hemisphere Winter|last1=Wallace|first1=John M.|last2=Gutzler|first2=David S.|journal=Monthly Weather Review|issue=4|bibcode=1981MWRv..109..784W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Concomitantly, the theory emerged that such patterns could be understood through the dispersion of [[Rossby waves]] due to the spherical geometry of the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1981)038<1179:TSLROA>2.0.CO;2|year=1981|volume=38|pages=1179|title=The Steady Linear Response of a Spherical Atmosphere to Thermal and Orographic Forcing|last1=Hoskins|first1=Brian J.|last2=Karoly|first2=David J.|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|issue=6|bibcode=1981JAtS...38.1179H|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is sometimes called the "proto-model".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/97JC01444|title=Progress during TOGA in understanding and modeling global teleconnections associated with tropical sea surface temperatures|year=1998|last1=Trenberth|first1=Kevin E.|last2=Branstator|first2=Grant W.|last3=Karoly|first3=David|last4=Kumar|first4=Arun|last5=Lau|first5=Ngar-Cheung|last6=Ropelewski|first6=Chester|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=103|issue=C7|pages=14291–14324|bibcode=1998JGR...10314291T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the 1980s, improved observations allowed detection of teleconnections at larger distances throughout the [[troposphere]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<0784:TITGHF>2.0.CO;2|year=1981|volume=109|pages=784|title=Teleconnections in the Geopotential Height Field during the Northern Hemisphere Winter|last1=Wallace|first1=John M.|last2=Gutzler|first2=David S.|journal=Monthly Weather Review|issue=4|bibcode=1981MWRv..109..784W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Concomitantly, the theory emerged that such patterns could be understood through the dispersion of [[Rossby waves]] due to the spherical geometry of the Earth.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1981)038<1179:TSLROA>2.0.CO;2|year=1981|volume=38|pages=1179|title=The Steady Linear Response of a Spherical Atmosphere to Thermal and Orographic Forcing|last1=Hoskins|first1=Brian J.|last2=Karoly|first2=David J.|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|issue=6|bibcode=1981JAtS...38.1179H|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is sometimes called the "proto-model".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/97JC01444|title=Progress during TOGA in understanding and modeling global teleconnections associated with tropical sea surface temperatures|year=1998|last1=Trenberth|first1=Kevin E.|last2=Branstator|first2=Grant W.|last3=Karoly|first3=David|last4=Kumar|first4=Arun|last5=Lau|first5=Ngar-Cheung|last6=Ropelewski|first6=Chester|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=103|issue=C7|pages=14291–14324|bibcode=1998JGR...10314291T|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the 1980s, improved observations allowed detection of teleconnections at larger distances throughout the troposphere. Concomitantly, the theory emerged that such patterns could be understood through the dispersion of Rossby waves due to the spherical geometry of the Earth. This is sometimes called the "proto-model".

In the 1980s, improved observations allowed detection of teleconnections at larger distances throughout the troposphere. Concomitantly, the theory emerged that such patterns could be understood through the dispersion of Rossby waves due to the spherical geometry of the Earth. This is sometimes called the "proto-model".

== Theory ==

== Theory ==

Teleconnections within the tropical Pacific began to be understood thanks to the idealized calculations of A.E. Gill and later through more complex models.

Teleconnections within the tropical Pacific began to be understood thanks to the idealized calculations of A.E. Gill and later through more complex models.

热带太平洋内的遥相关理论开始被人们理解，这要归功于 a.e 的理想化计算。吉尔后来通过更复杂的模型。

热带太平洋内的遥相关理论开始被人们理解，这要归功于 A.E.Gill的理想化计算以及后来更复杂的模型。

Building upon the "proto-model", much of the early theory of teleconnections dealt with [[barotropic]], [[linear]]ized model of atmospheric flow about a constant mean state. However, the model was soon invalidated when it was discovered that actual teleconnection patterns were nearly insensitive to the location of the forcing, in direct contradiction with the predictions offered by this simple picture.  

Building upon the "proto-model", much of the early theory of teleconnections dealt with [[barotropic]], [[linear]]ized model of atmospheric flow about a constant mean state. However, the model was soon invalidated when it was discovered that actual teleconnection patterns were nearly insensitive to the location of the forcing, in direct contradiction with the predictions offered by this simple picture.  

Simmons and collaborators showed that if a more realistic background state was prescribed, it would become unstable, leading to a similar pattern regardless of the location of the forcing, in accordance to observations. This "modal" property turned out to be an artifact of the barotropicity of the model, though it has appeared for more subtle reasons in more realistic models.

Simmons and collaborators showed that if a more realistic background state was prescribed, it would become unstable, leading to a similar pattern regardless of the location of the forcing, in accordance to observations. This "modal" property turned out to be an artifact of the barotropicity of the model, though it has appeared for more subtle reasons in more realistic models.

More recent work has shown that most teleconnections from the tropics to the extratropics can be understood to surprising accuracy by the propagation of linear, [[planetary waves]] upon a 3-dimensional seasonally-varying basic state.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2125:NWSWTA>2.0.CO;2 |year=2002 |volume=15 |pages=2125 |title=Northern Winter Stationary Waves: Theory and Modeling |last1=Held |first1=Isaac M. |last2=Ting |first2=Mingfang |last3=Wang |first3=Hailan |journal=Journal of Climate |issue=16|bibcode = 2002JCli...15.2125H |citeseerx=10.1.1.140.5658 }}</ref> Because the patterns are persistent over time and somewhat "locked" to geographical features such as mountain ranges, these waves are called ''[[standing wave|stationary]]''.

More recent work has shown that most teleconnections from the tropics to the extratropics can be understood to surprising accuracy by the propagation of linear, [[planetary waves]] upon a 3-dimensional seasonally-varying basic state.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2125:NWSWTA>2.0.CO;2 |year=2002 |volume=15 |pages=2125 |title=Northern Winter Stationary Waves: Theory and Modeling |last1=Held |first1=Isaac M. |last2=Ting |first2=Mingfang |last3=Wang |first3=Hailan |journal=Journal of Climate |issue=16|bibcode = 2002JCli...15.2125H |citeseerx=10.1.1.140.5658 }}</ref> Because the patterns are persistent over time and somewhat "locked" to geographical features such as mountain ranges, these waves are called ''[[standing wave|stationary]]''.

More recent work has shown that most teleconnections from the tropics to the extratropics can be understood to surprising accuracy by the propagation of linear, planetary waves upon a 3-dimensional seasonally-varying basic state. Because the patterns are persistent over time and somewhat "locked" to geographical features such as mountain ranges, these waves are called stationary.

More recent work has shown that most teleconnections from the tropics to the extratropics can be understood to surprising accuracy by the propagation of linear, planetary waves upon a 3-dimensional seasonally-varying basic state. Because the patterns are persistent over time and somewhat "locked" to geographical features such as mountain ranges, these waves are called stationary.

Another mechanism of teleconnection between tropical oceans and midlatitude regions is symmetric along latitude circles (i.e. "zonal") and between hemispheres, unlike the stationary wave mechanism. It relies on interactions between transient [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]] and the mean atmospheric flow that are mutually reinforcing (i.e. [[non-linear]]). It has been shown to explain some aspects of ENSO teleconnections in temperature<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2960:MOHSCV>2.0.CO;2 |year=2003 |volume=16 |pages=2960 |title=Mechanisms of Hemispherically Symmetric Climate Variability* |last1=Seager |first1=Richard |last2=Harnik |first2=Nili |last3=Kushnir |first3=Yochanan |last4=Robinson |first4=Walter |last5=Miller |first5=Jennifer |journal=Journal of Climate |issue=18|bibcode = 2003JCli...16.2960S }}</ref> and rainfall.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1256/qj.04.96 |title=Mechanisms of ENSO-forcing of hemispherically symmetric precipitation variability |year=2005 |last1=Seager |first1=R. |last2=Harnik |first2=N. |last3=Robinson |first3=W. A. |last4=Kushnir |first4=Y. |last5=Ting |first5=M. |last6=Huang |first6=H.-P. |last7=Velez |first7=J. |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |volume=131 |issue=608 |pages=1501|bibcode = 2005QJRMS.131.1501S }}</ref> Other authors suggested, as well, a correlation between many teleconnection patterns and local climate change factors.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00704-011-0554-1 |title=Inter-annual temperature and precipitation variations over the Litani Basin in response to atmospheric circulation patterns |year=2011 |last1=Ramadan |first1=H. H. |last2=Ramamurthy |first2=A. S. |last3=Beighley |first3=R. E. |journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology |volume=108 |issue=3–4 |pages=563|bibcode = 2012ThApC.108..563R }}</ref>

Another mechanism of teleconnection between tropical oceans and midlatitude regions is symmetric along latitude circles (i.e. "zonal") and between hemispheres, unlike the stationary wave mechanism. It relies on interactions between transient [[Eddy (fluid dynamics)|eddies]] and the mean atmospheric flow that are mutually reinforcing (i.e. [[non-linear]]). It has been shown to explain some aspects of ENSO teleconnections in temperature<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2960:MOHSCV>2.0.CO;2 |year=2003 |volume=16 |pages=2960 |title=Mechanisms of Hemispherically Symmetric Climate Variability* |last1=Seager |first1=Richard |last2=Harnik |first2=Nili |last3=Kushnir |first3=Yochanan |last4=Robinson |first4=Walter |last5=Miller |first5=Jennifer |journal=Journal of Climate |issue=18|bibcode = 2003JCli...16.2960S }}</ref> and rainfall.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1256/qj.04.96 |title=Mechanisms of ENSO-forcing of hemispherically symmetric precipitation variability |year=2005 |last1=Seager |first1=R. |last2=Harnik |first2=N. |last3=Robinson |first3=W. A. |last4=Kushnir |first4=Y. |last5=Ting |first5=M. |last6=Huang |first6=H.-P. |last7=Velez |first7=J. |journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society |volume=131 |issue=608 |pages=1501|bibcode = 2005QJRMS.131.1501S }}</ref> Other authors suggested, as well, a correlation between many teleconnection patterns and local climate change factors.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00704-011-0554-1 |title=Inter-annual temperature and precipitation variations over the Litani Basin in response to atmospheric circulation patterns |year=2011 |last1=Ramadan |first1=H. H. |last2=Ramamurthy |first2=A. S. |last3=Beighley |first3=R. E. |journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology |volume=108 |issue=3–4 |pages=563|bibcode = 2012ThApC.108..563R }}</ref>

Another mechanism of teleconnection between tropical oceans and midlatitude regions is symmetric along latitude circles (i.e. "zonal") and between hemispheres, unlike the stationary wave mechanism. It relies on interactions between transient eddies and the mean atmospheric flow that are mutually reinforcing (i.e. non-linear). It has been shown to explain some aspects of ENSO teleconnections in temperature and rainfall. Other authors suggested, as well, a correlation between many teleconnection patterns and local climate change factors.

Another mechanism of teleconnection between tropical oceans and midlatitude regions is symmetric along latitude circles (i.e. "zonal") and between hemispheres, unlike the stationary wave mechanism. It relies on interactions between transient eddies and the mean atmospheric flow that are mutually reinforcing (i.e. non-linear). It has been shown to explain some aspects of ENSO teleconnections in temperature and rainfall. Other authors suggested, as well, a correlation between many teleconnection patterns and local climate change factors.

热带海洋与中纬度地区遥相关的另一个机制是沿纬度圈的对称性(即纬度圈的对称性)。“区域”)和半球之间，不同于驻波机制。它依赖于瞬时涡旋和平均大气流之间的相互作用，这种相互作用是相辅相成的。非线性)。它已经解释了 ENSO 遥相关在温度和降水方面的一些方面。其他作者也提出了许多遥相关模式和当地气候变化因素之间的相关性。

不同于驻波机制，热带海洋与中纬度地区遥相关的另一个机制是沿纬度圈（“纬向”)和两半球之间的对称性。它依赖于瞬时涡动和平均大气流之间相辅相成（非线性)的交互作用。它已经证明可以解释 “厄尔尼诺-南方涛动”在温度和降水的一些遥相关现象。其他作者也提出了许多遥相关模式和当地气候变化因素之间的相关性。

== Applications ==

== Applications ==

For instance, predicting El Niño enables prediction of North American rainfall, snowfall, droughts or temperature patterns with a few weeks to months lead time. In Sir Gilbert Walker's time, A strong El Niño usually meant a weaker Indian monsoon, but this anticorrelation has weakened in the 1980s and 1990s, for controversial reasons.

For instance, predicting El Niño enables prediction of North American rainfall, snowfall, droughts or temperature patterns with a few weeks to months lead time. In Sir Gilbert Walker's time, A strong El Niño usually meant a weaker Indian monsoon, but this anticorrelation has weakened in the 1980s and 1990s, for controversial reasons.

由于热带海洋表面温度可以提前两年预测，遥相关模式的知识可以为偏远地区提供某种程度的可预测性，有时候可以预测几个季节。例如，预测厄尔尼诺现象可以预测北美洲的降雨、降雪、干旱或气温模式，提前几周到几个月。在吉尔伯特 · 沃克爵士的时代，强烈的厄尔尼诺现象通常意味着较弱的印度季风，但是这种反作用关系在20世纪80年代和90年代已经减弱，原因是有争议的。

由于热带海洋表面温度可以提前两年预测，遥相关模式的知识可以为偏远地区提供某种程度的可预测性，有时候可以预测几个季节。例如，预测厄尔尼诺现象可以预测北美洲的降雨、降雪、干旱或气温模式。在吉尔伯特 · 沃克爵士的时代，强烈的厄尔尼诺现象通常意味着较弱的印度季风，但由于有争议的原因，这种反相关性在20世纪80年代和90年代已经减弱。

== See also ==

== See also ==