更改

  [[File:Nb3O7(OH)_self-organization2.jpg|400px|thumb|right|在200°C 的水热处理期间，微米级,<math>Nb_3O_7(OH)</math>立方体中的自组织。最初，无定形立方体逐渐转变为晶体纳米线的有序3D网格，如图模型所示。<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1039/C4TA02202E| title= Template-free synthesis of novel, highly-ordered 3D hierarchical Nb₃O₇(OH) superstructures with semiconductive and photoactive properties| journal= Journal of Materials Chemistry A| volume= 2| issue= 30| page= 12005| year= 2014| last1= Betzler | first1= S. B. | last2= Wisnet | first2= A. | last3= Breitbach | first3= B. | last4= Mitterbauer | first4= C. | last5= Weickert | first5= J. | last6= Schmidt-Mende | first6= L. | last7= Scheu | first7= C. |doi-access= free| url= https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/123456789/28968/1/Betzler_289681.pdf}}</ref>]]

  [[File:Nb3O7(OH)_self-organization2.jpg|400px|thumb|right|在200°C 的水热处理期间，微米级,<math>Nb_3O_7(OH)</math>立方体中的自组织。最初，无定形立方体逐渐转变为晶体纳米线的有序3D网格，如图模型所示。<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1039/C4TA02202E| title= Template-free synthesis of novel, highly-ordered 3D hierarchical Nb₃O₇(OH) superstructures with semiconductive and photoactive properties| journal= Journal of Materials Chemistry A| volume= 2| issue= 30| page= 12005| year= 2014| last1= Betzler | first1= S. B. | last2= Wisnet | first2= A. | last3= Breitbach | first3= B. | last4= Mitterbauer | first4= C. | last5= Weickert | first5= J. | last6= Schmidt-Mende | first6= L. | last7= Scheu | first7= C. |doi-access= free| url= https://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/123456789/28968/1/Betzler_289681.pdf}}</ref>]]

'''自组织 Self-organization'''， 在社会科学中也被称为[[自发秩序]]''Spontaneous order'' ，是指一种起源于初始无序系统的部分元素之间的局部相互作用、所产生出某种形式的整体秩序的过程。当有足够的能量可用时，该过程可以是自发的，不需要任何外部主体''agent''进行控制。它通常是由看似随机的波动触发，并由正反馈放大。最终形成的自组织是完全分散的，分布在系统的所有组件中。因此，自组织通常是健壮的，能够生存下来或者自我修复严重的干扰。

'''自组织 Self-organization'''， 在社会科学中也被称为[[自发秩序]]''Spontaneous order'' ，是指通过起源于初始无序系统的部分元素之间的局部发生相互作用，使某种形式的整体秩序形成的过程。当有足够的能量可用时，该过程可以是自发的，不需要任何外部主体进行控制。它是由看似随机的扰动触发的，并由正反馈放大，最终形成了完全分散的自组织，它分布在系统的所有组件中。因此，自组织通常是有长期稳定的生存能力，在严重的干扰下能自我修复。

[[混沌理论]]讨论的自组织，就如同无序、不可预测的大海中的确定性孤岛。

[[混沌理论]]中讨论的自组织，就如同不可预测的大海中的确定性孤岛。

自组织依赖于四个基本要素：<ref>{{cite book |author1=Bonabeau, Eric |author2=Dorigo, Marco |author3=Theraulaz, Guy |date=1999 |title=Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems |isbn=978-0-19-513159-8|publisher=OUP USA|pages=9–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvTDhzqMr7cC}}</ref>

 

自组织的四个基本要素如下：<ref>{{cite book |author1=Bonabeau, Eric |author2=Dorigo, Marco |author3=Theraulaz, Guy |date=1999 |title=Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems |isbn=978-0-19-513159-8|publisher=OUP USA|pages=9–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PvTDhzqMr7cC}}</ref>

#很强的动态分线性特性，通常都会涉及[[正反馈]]和负反馈，虽然不是必然

#很强的动态分线性特性，通常都会涉及[[正反馈]]和负反馈，虽然不是必然

#利用（已有的）和探测（未知的）之间的平衡

#利用（已有的）和探测（未知的）之间的平衡

==原理==

==原理==

[[控制论]]专家威廉·罗斯·阿什比 W. Ross Ashby 在1947年提出了'''自组织 Self-organization '''的初始原理，<ref name="ashby1947">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/00221309.1947.9918144| pmid=20270223| title=Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System| journal=The Journal of General Psychology| volume=37| issue=2| pages=125–28| year=1947| last1=Ashby | first1=W. R.}}</ref><ref>Ashby, W. R. (1962). [http://csis.pace.edu/~marchese/CS396x/Computing/Ashby.pdf "Principles of the self-organizing system"], pp. 255–78 in ''Principles of Self-Organization''. Heinz von Foerster and George W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.) U.S. Office of Naval Research.</ref>它指出任何确定性[[动力系统]]都会自动演变成一个均衡状态，这种均衡状态可以描述为一个在盆地周围环绕状态的'''[[吸引子]] Attractor '''。一旦到达那里，系统的进一步演化就被约束以保持在吸引子中。这种约束代表了其组成元素或子系统之间相互依赖或协调的某种形式。用Ashby的话来说，每个子系统都适应了所有其他子系统形成的环境。<ref name=ashby1947/>

[[控制论]]专家威廉·罗斯·阿什比 W. Ross Ashby 在1947年提出了'''自组织 Self-organization '''的初始原理，<ref name="ashby1947">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/00221309.1947.9918144| pmid=20270223| title=Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System| journal=The Journal of General Psychology| volume=37| issue=2| pages=125–28| year=1947| last1=Ashby | first1=W. R.}}</ref><ref>Ashby, W. R. (1962). [http://csis.pace.edu/~marchese/CS396x/Computing/Ashby.pdf "Principles of the self-organizing system"], pp. 255–78 in ''Principles of Self-Organization''. Heinz von Foerster and George W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.) U.S. Office of Naval Research.</ref>它指出任何确定性[[动力系统]]都会自动演变成一个均衡状态，这种均衡状态可以描述为一个在盆地周围环绕状态的'''[[吸引子]] Attractor '''。一旦系统演化进入到吸引子中，系统的进一步演化就被约束，该系统将依存在吸引子中。这种约束代表了其组成元素或子系统之间相互依赖或协调的某种形式。用Ashby的话来说，每个子系统都适应了所有其他子系统形成的环境。<ref name=ashby1947/>

[[控制论]]专家海因茨·冯·福斯特 Heinz von Foerster 于1960年提出了“ 从噪声中获得有序 Order from noise ” 的原理。<ref>Von Foerster, H. (1960). [http://e1020.pbworks.com/f/fulltext.pdf "On self-organizing systems and their environments"], pp. 31–50 in ''Self-organizing systems''. M.C. Yovits and S. Cameron (eds.), Pergamon Press, London</ref> 该原理指出，自组织是由随机扰动 “噪声” 促进的，该随机扰动使系统在其状态空间中探索各种状态。这增加了系统到达“强”或“深”吸引子池中的机会，然后系统会迅速进入吸引子本身。生物物理学家亨利·阿特兰 Henri Atlan 通过提出“ 噪声带来的复杂性 Complexity from noise，法语 le principe de complexité par le bruit ” 原理发展了这一概念，<ref>See [https://www.google.com/search?&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Henri+Atlan%22%22complexity+from+noise%22 occurrences] on Google Books.</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=François |editor-first=Charles |editor-link= |title=International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics |year=2011 |origyear=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SZxnQgAACAAJ 1997] |edition=2nd |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |page=[https://books.google.com/?id=XCn2mn98uEAC&pg=PA107&dq=%22complexity+from+noise+principle%22+Atlan+1972 107] |isbn=978-3-1109-6801-9 |title-link= }}</ref> 该原理首见于1972年出版的《L'organisation biologique et lathéoriede l'information》，<ref>[https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22complexité+par+le+bruit%22%22L'Organisation+biologique+et+la+théorie+de+l'information%22+1972].</ref> 然后是1979年出版的《Entre le cristal et lafumée》。<ref>Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). ''Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations''. Wiley, New York.</ref> 热力学家伊利亚·[[普利高津]] Ilya Prigogine 提出了类似的原则，即“波动带来有序 Order through fluctuations ”<ref>Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). ''Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations''. Wiley, New York.</ref> 或“混乱带来有序 Order out of chaos ”<ref>Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I. (1984). ''Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature''. Bantam Books.</ref>。它也应用在用于解决问题和机器学习的[[模拟退火]]方法中。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Furqan |title=Simulated annealing variants for self-organized resource allocation in small cell networks |journal=Applied Soft Computing |last2=Tirkkonen |first2=Olav |date=January 2016 |volume=38|pages=762–70 |doi=10.1016/j.asoc.2015.10.028 }}</ref>

[[控制论]]专家海因茨·冯·福斯特 Heinz von Foerster 于1960年提出了“ 从噪声中获得有序 Order from noise ” 的原理。<ref>Von Foerster, H. (1960). [http://e1020.pbworks.com/f/fulltext.pdf "On self-organizing systems and their environments"], pp. 31–50 in ''Self-organizing systems''. M.C. Yovits and S. Cameron (eds.), Pergamon Press, London</ref> 该原理指出，自组织是由随机扰动 “噪声” 促进的，该随机扰动使系统在其状态空间中探索各种状态。这增加了系统到达“强”或“深”吸引子池中的机会，然后系统会迅速进入吸引子本身。生物物理学家亨利·阿特兰 Henri Atlan 通过提出“ 噪声带来的复杂性 Complexity from noise，法语 le principe de complexité par le bruit ” 原理发展了这一概念，<ref>See [https://www.google.com/search?&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Henri+Atlan%22%22complexity+from+noise%22 occurrences] on Google Books.</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=François |editor-first=Charles |editor-link= |title=International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics |year=2011 |origyear=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SZxnQgAACAAJ 1997] |edition=2nd |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |page=[https://books.google.com/?id=XCn2mn98uEAC&pg=PA107&dq=%22complexity+from+noise+principle%22+Atlan+1972 107] |isbn=978-3-1109-6801-9 |title-link= }}</ref> 该原理首见于1972年出版的《L'organisation biologique et lathéoriede l'information》，<ref>[https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22complexité+par+le+bruit%22%22L'Organisation+biologique+et+la+théorie+de+l'information%22+1972].</ref> 然后是1979年出版的《Entre le cristal et lafumée》。<ref>Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). ''Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations''. Wiley, New York.</ref> 热力学家伊利亚·[[普利高津]] Ilya Prigogine 提出了类似的原则，即“波动带来有序 Order through fluctuations ”<ref>Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). ''Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations''. Wiley, New York.</ref> 或“混乱带来有序 Order out of chaos ”<ref>Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I. (1984). ''Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature''. Bantam Books.</ref>。它也应用在用于解决问题和机器学习的[[模拟退火]]方法中。<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Furqan |title=Simulated annealing variants for self-organized resource allocation in small cell networks |journal=Applied Soft Computing |last2=Tirkkonen |first2=Olav |date=January 2016 |volume=38|pages=762–70 |doi=10.1016/j.asoc.2015.10.028 }}</ref>

==历史演变==

==历史演变==

系统动力演化可以导致其组织增加的想法由来已久。像德谟克里特 Democritus  和卢克雷修斯 Lucretius 之类的古代[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism 原子论者]认为，一种有计划的智能对于在自然界中创造有序是不必要的，他们认为，只要有足够的时间、空间和物质，有序就会自动产生。<ref>{{cite book |last1 =Palmer |first1= Ada |author-link1= Ada Palmer |title= Reading Lucretius in the Renaissance |date= October 2014|publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-674-72557-7|quote= Ada Palmer explores how Renaissance readers, such as Machiavelli, Pomponio Leto, and Montaigne, actually ingested and disseminated Lucretius, ... and shows how ideas of emergent order and natural selection, so critical to our current thinking, became embedded in Europe’s intellectual landscape before the seventeenth century. |url= http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725577<!--url for quote-->}}</ref>

系统动力演化可以自动形成组织的想法历史悠久。像德谟克里特 Democritus  和卢克雷修斯 Lucretius 之类的古代[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism 原子论者]认为，一种有计划的智能对于在自然界中创造有序是不必要的，他们认为，只要有足够的时间、空间和物质，有序就会自动产生。<ref>{{cite book |last1 =Palmer |first1= Ada |author-link1= Ada Palmer |title= Reading Lucretius in the Renaissance |date= October 2014|publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-674-72557-7|quote= Ada Palmer explores how Renaissance readers, such as Machiavelli, Pomponio Leto, and Montaigne, actually ingested and disseminated Lucretius, ... and shows how ideas of emergent order and natural selection, so critical to our current thinking, became embedded in Europe’s intellectual landscape before the seventeenth century. |url= http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725577<!--url for quote-->}}</ref>

依曼纽尔·康德 Immanuel Kant 在他的1790年《审判批判》中使用了'''“自组织化 Selft-onganizing”'''一词，他认为只有存在这样的实体——其各个部分或“器官 Organs ”同时是终点和手段时——才是有意义的概念。这样的器官系统一定能够像拥有自己的思想一样行事，也就是说，它能够自我支配。<ref name=Kant>{{cite book|title= German Aesthetic|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eC88AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA64|publisher= CUP Archive|pages= 64–|id= GGKEY:TFTHBB91ZH2}}</ref>

依曼纽尔·康德 Immanuel Kant 在他的1790年《审判批判》中使用了'''“自组织化 Selft-onganizing”'''一词，他认为只有存在这样的实体——其各个部分或“器官 Organs ”同时是终点和手段时——才是有意义的概念。这样的器官系统一定能够像拥有自己的思想一样行事，也就是说，它能够自我支配。<ref name="Kant">{{cite book|title= German Aesthetic|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=eC88AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA64|publisher= CUP Archive|pages= 64–|id= GGKEY:TFTHBB91ZH2}}</ref>

18世纪的思想家试图理解“形式的普遍定律 Universal laws of form ”，以解释观察到的生物体形式。这个想法与'''拉马克主义 Lamarckism '''联系在一起，并声名狼藉，直到20世纪初 D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson 1860–1948 试图复兴它。<ref name=Ruse>{{cite book |author1= Ruse, Michael |editor1-last= Henning |editor1-first= Brian G. |editor2-last= Scarfe |editor2-first= Adam |title= Beyond Mechanism: Putting Life Back Into Biology |date= 2013 |publisher= Lexington Books |page= 419 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3VtosxAtq-EC|chapter= 17. From Organicism to Mechanism-and Halfway Back?|isbn= 9780739174371 }}</ref>

18世纪的思想家试图理解“形式的普遍定律 Universal laws of form ”，以解释观察到的生物体形式。这个想法与'''拉马克主义 Lamarckism '''联系在一起，并声名狼藉，直到20世纪初 D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson 1860–1948 试图复兴它。<ref name="Ruse">{{cite book |author1= Ruse, Michael |editor1-last= Henning |editor1-first= Brian G. |editor2-last= Scarfe |editor2-first= Adam |title= Beyond Mechanism: Putting Life Back Into Biology |date= 2013 |publisher= Lexington Books |page= 419 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3VtosxAtq-EC|chapter= 17. From Organicism to Mechanism-and Halfway Back?|isbn= 9780739174371 }}</ref>

在1990年代，Gordon Pask 辩称，von Foerster 的H和Hmax不是独立的，而是通过可数的'''无限递归并发自旋过程 Countably infinite recursive concurrent spin processes '''相互作用的，<ref name=p1996/> 他称之为概念。他严格定义了“建立关系的程序 A procedure to bring about a relation”这一概念，<ref name=p1973/> 使得他的定理“相似概念排斥，不同概念吸引 Like concepts repel, unlike concepts attract” ，<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/03684920110391913| title=On Gordon Pask| journal=Kybernetes| volume=30| issue=5/6| pages=673–82| year=2001| last1=Green | first1=N. }}</ref> 以得出一种通用的、基于自旋的自组织原理。他的原则是一项排除原则，“ 非二重性 There are No Doppelgangers ”意味着没有两个概念完全相同。经过足够的时间后，所有概念都吸引并合并成为粉红噪音 Pink noise。<ref>Pask, Gordon (1993) [http://www.cybsoc.org/PasksIAT.PDF ''Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications''].</ref><ref name="p1996">{{cite journal |author=Pask, Gordon |year=1996 |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/GPprog.PDF |title=Heinz von Foerster's Self-Organisation, the Progenitor of Conversation and Interaction Theories |journal= Systems Research |volume=13|issue= 3 |pages=349–62 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1735(199609)13:3<349::aid-sres103>3.3.co;2-7}}</ref>该理论应用于可以产生持久、连贯产品的所有组织封闭 Organizationally closed 或体内平衡 Homeostatic 的过程，这些产品会不断发展，学习和适应。

在1990年代，Gordon Pask 辩称，von Foerster 的H和Hmax不是独立的，而是通过可数的'''无限递归并发自旋过程 Countably infinite recursive concurrent spin processes '''相互作用的，<ref name=p1996/> 他称之为概念。他严格定义了“建立关系的程序 A procedure to bring about a relation”这一概念，<ref name=p1973/> 使得他的定理“相似概念排斥，不同概念吸引 Like concepts repel, unlike concepts attract” ，<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/03684920110391913| title=On Gordon Pask| journal=Kybernetes| volume=30| issue=5/6| pages=673–82| year=2001| last1=Green | first1=N. }}</ref> 以得出一种通用的、基于自旋的自组织原理。他的原则是一项排除原则，“ 非二重性 There are No Doppelgangers ”意味着没有两个概念完全相同。经过足够的时间后，所有概念都会吸引并合并成为粉红噪音 Pink noise。<ref>Pask, Gordon (1993) [http://www.cybsoc.org/PasksIAT.PDF ''Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications''].</ref><ref name="p1996">{{cite journal |author=Pask, Gordon |year=1996 |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/GPprog.PDF |title=Heinz von Foerster's Self-Organisation, the Progenitor of Conversation and Interaction Theories |journal= Systems Research |volume=13|issue= 3 |pages=349–62 |doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-1735(199609)13:3<349::aid-sres103>3.3.co;2-7}}</ref>该理论应用于可以产生持久、连贯产品的所有组织封闭 Organizationally closed 或体内平衡 Homeostatic 的过程，这些产品会不断发展，学习和适应。

===学习领域===

===学习领域===

使他人“学习如何学习”<ref>Rogers.C. (1969). ''Freedom to Learn''. Merrill</ref> 通常是指教导他们如何服从于被教导。'''自组织学习 Self-organised learning, SOL '''<ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1985) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1994) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (2013) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xWVcDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcoverSelf-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology]''. Routledge (Psy. Revivals)</ref> 否认“专家最了解”或存在“最佳方法”，<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (1991) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013)''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. BookBaby (eBook)</ref> 反而坚持认为“个体层面显著的、相关的和可行意义的建构”，<ref>Illich. I. (1971) ''A Celebration of Awareness''. Penguin Books.</ref> 应由学习者进行体验性尝试。<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. (2000) ''The University of Learning in transformation''</ref> 这可能是协作完成的，而且个人收获更大。<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1997) ''This I Believe and Other Essays (Resurgence Book)''. </ref><ref>Revans R. W. (1982) ''The Origins and Growth of Action Learning'' Chartwell-Bratt, Bromley</ref> 它被视为一生的过程，并不受限于特定的学习环境 家庭，学校，大学 ，也不受限于父母或教授等权威机构的控制。<ref>Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein S. (1993) "On Becoming a Learning Organisation" in ''Report of a 7 year Action Research Project with the Royal Mail Business''. CSHL Monograph</ref> 它需要通过学习者的亲身经历去尝试、并且不断去修正。<ref>Rogers C.R. (1971) ''On Becoming a Person''. Constable, London</ref> 它也不必受限于意识或语言。<ref>Prigogyne I. & Sengers I. (1985) ''Order out of Chaos'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref>弗里特霍夫·卡普拉 Fritjof Capra 声称，这自组织学习，在心理学和教育中鲜为人知。<ref>Capra F (1989) ''Uncommon Wisdom'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref> 它可能与控制论有关，<ref name=p1973>Pask, G. (1973). ''Conversation, Cognition and Learning. A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology''. Elsevier</ref><ref>Bohm D. (1994) ''Thought as a System''. Routledge.</ref>因为它涉及'''负反馈控制回路 Negative feedback control loop'''，或者与系统理论有关。它可以作为学习谈话或对话在学习者之间或一个人进行。<ref>Maslow, A. H. (1964). ''Religions, values, and peak-experiences'', Columbus: Ohio State University Press.</ref><ref>''Conversational Science'' Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein E.S. (1985)</ref>

使他人“学习如何学习”<ref>Rogers.C. (1969). ''Freedom to Learn''. Merrill</ref> 通常是指教导他们如何服从于被教导。'''自组织学习 Self-organised learning, SOL '''<ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1985) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (1994) ''Self-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Thomas L.F. & Augstein E.S. (2013) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xWVcDQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcoverSelf-Organised Learning: Foundations of a conversational science for psychology]''. Routledge (Psy. Revivals)</ref> 否认“专家最了解”或存在“最佳方法”，<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (1991) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (1st Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013) ''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. Routledge (2nd Ed.)</ref><ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. and Thomas L. F. (2013)''Learning Conversations: The S-O-L way to personal and organizational growth''. BookBaby (eBook)</ref> 反而坚持认为“个体层面显著的、相关的和可行意义的建构”，<ref>Illich. I. (1971) ''A Celebration of Awareness''. Penguin Books.</ref> 应由学习者进行体验性尝试。<ref>Harri-Augstein E. S. (2000) ''The University of Learning in transformation''</ref> 这可能是协作完成的，而且个人收获更大。<ref>Schumacher, E. F. (1997) ''This I Believe and Other Essays (Resurgence Book)''. </ref><ref>Revans R. W. (1982) ''The Origins and Growth of Action Learning'' Chartwell-Bratt, Bromley</ref> 它被视为一生的过程，并不受限于特定的学习环境 家庭，学校，大学 ，也不受限于父母或教授等权威机构的控制。<ref>Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein S. (1993) "On Becoming a Learning Organisation" in ''Report of a 7 year Action Research Project with the Royal Mail Business''. CSHL Monograph</ref> 它需要通过学习者的亲身经历去尝试、并且不断去修正。<ref>Rogers C.R. (1971) ''On Becoming a Person''. Constable, London</ref> 它也不必受限于意识或语言。<ref>Prigogyne I. & Sengers I. (1985) ''Order out of Chaos'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref>弗里特霍夫·卡普拉 Fritjof Capra 声称，这自组织学习，在心理学和教育中鲜为人知。<ref>Capra F (1989) ''Uncommon Wisdom'' Flamingo Paperbacks. London</ref> 它可能与控制论有关，<ref name=p1973>Pask, G. (1973). ''Conversation, Cognition and Learning. A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology''. Elsevier</ref><ref>Bohm D. (1994) ''Thought as a System''. Routledge.</ref>因为它涉及'''负反馈控制回路 Negative feedback control loop。'''它可以作为学习谈话或对话在学习者之间或一个人进行。<ref>Maslow, A. H. (1964). ''Religions, values, and peak-experiences'', Columbus: Ohio State University Press.</ref><ref>''Conversational Science'' Thomas L.F. and Harri-Augstein E.S. (1985)</ref>

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Bejan#Constructal_law 构造法则 Constructal law]

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Bejan#Constructal_law 构造法则 Constructal law]

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligence 群体智能 Swarm intelligence]

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligence 群体智能 Swarm intelligence]

 

==参考文献==

==参考文献==