更改

计算社会科学 (查看源代码)

2020年5月10日 (日) 18:30的版本

添加1,999字节、 2020年5月10日 (日) 18:30

第193行：第193行：

==Areas of application==

As a [[Middle range theory (sociology)|middle-range]] theoretical platform, social complexity can be applied to any research in which [[social interaction]] or the outcomes of such interactions can be observed, but particularly where they can be [[Measurement|measured]] and expressed as [[Continuous function (set theory)|continuous]] or [[Discrete mathematics|discrete]] data points. One common criticism often cited regarding the usefulness of complexity science in sociology is the difficulty of obtaining adequate data.<ref>Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." ''Philosophy of the Social Sciences'', 31(3): 323–360.</ref> Nonetheless, application of the concept of social complexity and the analysis of such complexity has begun and continues to be an ongoing field of inquiry in sociology. From [[childhood]] friendships and [[teen pregnancy]]<ref name="CCS-MMT" /> to [[criminology]]<ref>Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)] Conference Presentation (unpublished).</ref> and [[counter-terrorism]],<ref>Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." ''Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium''. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. [http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf (Electronic Publication).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218014917/http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf |date=2004-12-18 }}</ref> theories of social complexity are being applied in almost all [[Subfields of sociology|areas of sociological research]].

+

As a middle-range theoretical platform, social complexity can be applied to any research in which social interaction or the outcomes of such interactions can be observed, but particularly where they can be measured and expressed as continuous or discrete data points. One common criticism often cited regarding the usefulness of complexity science in sociology is the difficulty of obtaining adequate data.[67] Nonetheless, application of the concept of social complexity and the analysis of such complexity has begun and continues to be an ongoing field of inquiry in sociology. From childhood friendships and teen pregnancy[58] to criminology[68] and counter-terrorism,[69] theories of social complexity are being applied in almost all areas of sociological research.

In the area of [[Communications theory|communications research]] and [[informetrics]], the concept of self-organizing systems appears in mid-1990s research related to scientific communications.<ref>[[Loet Leydesdorff|Leydesdorff, Loet]] (1995). ''The Challenge of Scientometrics: The development, measurement, and self-organization of scientific communications''. Leiden: DSWO Press, Leiden University.</ref> [[Scientometrics]] and [[bibliometrics]] are areas of research in which discrete data are available, as are several other areas of social communications research such as [[sociolinguistics]].<ref name="CCS-MMT" /> Social complexity is also a concept used in [[semiotics]].<ref>Dimitrov, Vladimir and Robert Woog (1997). "Studying Social Complexity: From Soft to Virtual Systems Methodology." [http://www.complex-systems.com/pdf/11-6-5.pdf Complex Systems, 11:(6)].</ref>

+

In the area of communications research and informetrics, the concept of self-organizing systems appears in mid-1990s research related to scientific communications.[70] Scientometrics and bibliometrics are areas of research in which discrete data are available, as are several other areas of social communications research such as sociolinguistics.[58] Social complexity is also a concept used in semiotics.[71]

+

In the first decade of the 21st century, the diversity of areas of application has grown<ref>Saberi, Mohammad Karim, Alireza Isfandyari-Moghaddam and Sedigheh Mohamadesmaeil (2011). "Web Citations Analysis of the JASSS: the First Ten Years." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/22.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14:(4), 22].</ref> as more sophisticated methods have developed. Social complexity theory is applied in studies of social [[cooperation]] and [[public goods]];<ref>Nowak, Martin and Roger Highfield (2011). ''Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref> [[Altruism (ethics)|altruism]];<ref>Hang, Ye, Fei Tan, Mei Ding, Yongmin Jia and Yefeng Chen (2011). "Sympathy and Punishment: Evolution of Cooperation in Public Goods Game." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/20.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 20].</ref> [[voting behavior]];<ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). [https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.04406 Voting Contagion]. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.</ref><ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177970 Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections]. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970</ref> [[education]];<ref>Mason, Mark (2008). ''Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell (Educational Philosophy and Theory Special Issues).</ref> global civil society <ref>Castellani, Brian. (2018). "The Defiance of Global Commitment: A Complex Social Psychology. Routledge complexity in social science series." doi:10.4324/9781351137140.</ref>

and global [[civil unrest]];<ref>Braha, Dan. (2012). [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048596 "Global Civil Unrest: Contagion, Self-Organization, and Prediction."] PLoS ONE 7(10): e48596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0048596.</ref> [[collective action]] and [[social movement]]s;<ref>Lohmann Susanne (1994). "Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–1991," ''World Politics'', 47: 42–101.</ref><ref>Chesters, Graeme and Ian Welsh (2006). ''Complexity and Social Movements: Protest at the Edge of Chaos." London: Routledge (International Library of Sociology).</ref> [[social inequality]];<ref>Castellani, Brian et al. (2011). "Addressing the U.S. Financial/Housing Crisis: Pareto, Schelling and Social Mobility."[http://cch.ashtabula.kent.edu/publications/Addressing%20the%20U.S.%20Financial%20&%20Housing%20Crisis.pdf Working Paper].</ref> workforce and [[unemployment]];<ref>Hedström, Peter and Yvonne Åberg (2011). "Social interaction and youth unemployment." ''Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms'', Pierre Demeulenaere (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Yilmaz, Levent (2011). "Toward Multi-Level, Multi-Theoretical Model Portfolios for Scientific Enterprise Workforce Dynamics." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/2.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 2.]</ref> [[economic geography]] and [[economic sociology]];<ref>Dan Braha, Blake Stacey and Yaneer Bar-Yam. (2011). [http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Journal_Version_SON_Braha.pdf "Corporate Competition: A Self-Organizing Network."] Social Networks, 33(3): 219-230.</ref> [[policy analysis]];<ref>Jervis, Robert (1998). ''System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Elliott, Euel and L. Douglas Kiel (eds.) (2000). ''Nonlinear Dynamics, Complexity and Public Policy''. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers.</ref> [[health care systems]];<ref>Brian Castellani, Rajeev Rajaram, J. Galen Buckwalter, Michael Ball and Frederic Hafferty (2012). [https://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-319-09733-6 "Place and Health as Complex Systems: A Case Study and Empirical Test"]. ''SpringerBriefs in Public Health.''</ref> and [[innovation]] and [[social change]],<ref>Leydesdorff, Loet (2006). ''The Knowledge-Based Economy Modeled, Measured, Simulated''. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers .</ref><ref>Lane, D.; Pumain, D.; Leeuw, S.E. van der; West, G. (eds.) (2009). ''Complexity Perspectives in Innovation and Social Change''. New York, NY: Springer (Methodos Series, Vol. 7).</ref> to name a few. A current international scientific research project, the [[Seshat (project)|Seshat: Global History Databank]], was explicitly designed to analyze changes in social complexity from the [[Neolithic Revolution]] until the [[Industrial Revolution]].

−

+

In the first decade of the 21st century, the diversity of areas of application has grown[72] as more sophisticated methods have developed. Social complexity theory is applied in studies of social cooperation and public goods;[73] altruism;[74] voting behavior;[75][76] education;[77] global civil society [78] and global civil unrest;[79] collective action and social movements;[80][81] social inequality;[82] workforce and unemployment;[83][84] economic geography and economic sociology;[85] policy analysis;[86][87] health care systems;[88] and innovation and social change,[89][90] to name a few. A current international scientific research project, the Seshat: Global History Databank, was explicitly designed to analyze changes in social complexity from the Neolithic Revolution until the Industrial Revolution.

−

==See also==

18621066378

311

个编辑