网络效应 network effect

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Diagram illustrating the network effect in a few simple phone networks. The lines represent potential calls between phones. As the number of phones connected to the network grows, the number of potential calls available to each phone grows and increases the utility of each phone, new and existing.

图解说明了几个简单的电话网络的网络效应。这些线代表电话之间的潜在通话。随着连接到网络的电话数量的增加，每部电话可用的潜在呼叫数量也在增加，并增加了每部电话的效用，无论是新的还是现有的。

A network effect (also called network externality or demand-side economies of scale) is the effect described in economics and business that an additional user of goods or services has on the value of that product to others. When a network effect is present, the value of a product or service increases according to the number of others using it.^[1]

A network effect (also called network externality or demand-side economies of scale) is the effect described in economics and business that an additional user of goods or services has on the value of that product to others. When a network effect is present, the value of a product or service increases according to the number of others using it.

网络效应(也称为网络外部性效应或需求方规模经济)是经济学和商业中描述的商品或服务的额外用户对该商品或服务对其他人的价值的影响。当存在网络效应时，产品或服务的价值会随着使用它的人数的增加而增加。

The classic example is the telephone, where a greater number of users increases the value to each. A positive externality is created when a telephone is purchased without its owner intending to create value for other users, but does so regardless. Online social networks work similarly, with platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and WhatsApp increasing in value to each member as more users join.

典型的例子是电话，其中用户越多，每个用户的价值就越大。当一部电话被购买时，它的所有者并没有为其他用户创造价值的意图，但是却不顾一切地这样做了，这就产生了正外部性。在线社交网络的工作方式也是类似的，随着越来越多的用户加入，Twitter、 Facebook 和 WhatsApp 等平台对每个用户的价值都在增加。

The network effect can create a bandwagon effect as the network becomes more valuable and more people join, resulting in a positive feedback loop.

随着网络变得越来越有价值，越来越多的人加入，网络效应可以创造出一个从众效应，从而形成一个积极的反馈循环。

The expression "network effect" is applied to positive network externalities as in the case of the telephone. Negative network externalities can also occur, where more users make a product less valuable, but they are more commonly referred to as "congestion" (as in traffic congestion or network congestion).

”网络效应”一词适用于正面的网络外部性，如电话的情况。负面的网络外部性也会发生，用户越多，产品的价值就越低，但它们通常被称为“拥堵”(如交通堵塞或拥塞控制)。

Origins

Network effects were a central theme in the arguments of Theodore Vail, the first post-patent president of Bell Telephone, in gaining a monopoly on US telephone services. In 1908, when he presented the concept in Bell's annual report, there were over 4,000 local and regional telephone exchanges, most of which were eventually merged into the Bell System.

贝尔电话公司(Bell Telephone)的第一位专利后总裁西奥多•韦尔(Theodore Vail)垄断了美国的电话服务，而网络效应是他争论的中心主题。1908年，当他在贝尔的年度报告中提出这一概念时，当时有超过4000个本地和地区电话交换机，其中大部分最终并入贝尔系统。

Network effects were popularized by Robert Metcalfe, stated as Metcalfe's law. Metcalfe was one of the co-inventors of Ethernet and a co-founder of the company 3Com. In selling the product, Metcalfe argued that customers needed Ethernet cards to grow above a certain critical mass if they were to reap the benefits of their network.^[2] According to Metcalfe, the rationale behind the sale of networking cards was that the cost of the network was directly proportional to the number of cards installed, but the value of the network was proportional to the square of the number of users. This was expressed algebraically as having a cost of N, and a value of N². While the actual numbers behind this proposition were never firm, the concept allowed customers to share access to expensive resources like disk drives and printers, send e-mail, and eventually access the Internet.

Network effects were popularized by Robert Metcalfe, stated as Metcalfe's law. Metcalfe was one of the co-inventors of Ethernet and a co-founder of the company 3Com. In selling the product, Metcalfe argued that customers needed Ethernet cards to grow above a certain critical mass if they were to reap the benefits of their network. According to Metcalfe, the rationale behind the sale of networking cards was that the cost of the network was directly proportional to the number of cards installed, but the value of the network was proportional to the square of the number of users. This was expressed algebraically as having a cost of N, and a value of N². While the actual numbers behind this proposition were never firm, the concept allowed customers to share access to expensive resources like disk drives and printers, send e-mail, and eventually access the Internet.

网络效应被罗伯特 · 梅特卡夫推广，称为梅特卡夫定律。梅特卡夫是以太网的共同发明者之一，也是3Com 公司的共同创始人。在销售这个产品时，梅特卡夫认为，如果客户想要从他们的网络中获益，他们需要以太网卡来增长超过一定的临界质量。据梅特卡夫说，出售网卡的理由是，网络成本与安装的网卡数量成正比，但网络的价值与用户数量的平方成正比。用代数方法表示为 n 的代价，n < sup > 2 。虽然这一提议背后的实际数字从未确定，但这一概念允许客户共享对昂贵资源的访问，如磁盘驱动器和打印机，发送电子邮件，并最终访问互联网。

The economic theory of the network effect was advanced significantly between 1985 and 1995 by researchers Michael L. Katz, Carl Shapiro, Joseph Farrell and Garth Saloner.^[3] Author, high-tech entrepreneur Rod Beckstrom presented a mathematical model for describing networks that are in a state of positive network effect at BlackHat and Defcon in 2009 and also presented the "inverse network effect" with an economic model for defining it as well.^[4]

The economic theory of the network effect was advanced significantly between 1985 and 1995 by researchers Michael L. Katz, Carl Shapiro, Joseph Farrell and Garth Saloner. Author, high-tech entrepreneur Rod Beckstrom presented a mathematical model for describing networks that are in a state of positive network effect at BlackHat and Defcon in 2009 and also presented the "inverse network effect" with an economic model for defining it as well.

1985年至1995年间，研究人员迈克尔 · l · 卡茨(Michael l. Katz)、卡尔 · 夏皮罗(Carl Shapiro)、约瑟夫 · 法雷尔(Joseph Farrell)和加思 · 塞隆纳(Garth Saloner)显著提出了网络效应的经济理论。作者、高科技企业家 Rod Beckstrom 于2009年在 BlackHat 和 Defcon 上提出了描述正网络效应状态的数学模型，并给出了“逆网络效应”的经济学定义模型。

Benefits

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Network effects become significant after a certain subscription percentage has been achieved, called critical mass. At the critical mass point, the value obtained from the good or service is greater than or equal to the price paid for the good or service. As the value of the good is determined by the user base, this implies that after a certain number of people have subscribed to the service or purchased the good, additional people will subscribe to the service or purchase the good due to the value exceeding the price.

网络效应在达到一定的订阅百分比后变得显著，称为临界质量。在临界质量点，从商品或服务获得的价值大于或等于为商品或服务支付的价格。由于商品的价值是由用户群决定的，这意味着在一定数量的人订阅了服务或购买了商品之后，会有更多的人订阅服务或购买商品，因为价值超过了价格。

A key business concern must then be how to attract users prior to reaching critical mass. One way is to rely on extrinsic motivation, such as a payment, a fee waiver, or a request for friends to sign up. A more natural strategy is to build a system that has enough value without network effects, at least to early adopters. Then, as the number of users increases, the system becomes even more valuable and is able to attract a wider user base.

A key business concern must then be how to attract users prior to reaching critical mass. One way is to rely on extrinsic motivation, such as a payment, a fee waiver, or a request for friends to sign up. A more natural strategy is to build a system that has enough value without network effects, at least to early adopters. Then, as the number of users increases, the system becomes even more valuable and is able to attract a wider user base.

因此，一个关键的业务问题必须是如何在达到临界质量之前吸引用户。一种方法是依靠外在动机，比如付款，费用减免，或者要求朋友注册。一个更自然的策略是建立一个没有网络效应的系统，至少对于早期使用者来说是这样的。然后，随着用户数量的增加，该系统变得更有价值，能够吸引更广泛的用户基础。

Beyond critical mass, the increasing number of subscribers generally cannot continue indefinitely. After a certain point, most networks become either congested or saturated, stopping future uptake. Congestion occurs due to overuse. The applicable analogy is that of a telephone network. While the number of users is below the congestion point, each additional user adds additional value to every other customer. However, at some point, the addition of an extra user exceeds the capacity of the existing system. After this point, each additional user decreases the value obtained by every other user. In practical terms, each additional user increases the total system load, leading to busy signals, the inability to get a dial tone, and poor customer support. Assuming the congestion point is below the potential market size, the next critical point is where the value obtained again equals the price paid. The network will cease to grow at this point if system capacity is not improved. Peer-to-peer (P2P) systems are networks designed to distribute load among their user pool. This theoretically allows P2P networks to scale indefinitely. The P2P based telephony service Skype benefits from this effect and its growth is limited primarily by market saturation.

除了临界质量之外，用户数量的增加通常不能无限期地持续下去。过了一定时间，大多数网络要么变得拥挤，要么达到饱和，阻止未来的发展。拥塞是由于过度使用造成的。适用的类比是电话网络。当用户数量低于拥塞点时，每一个额外的用户都会为其他每一个客户增加额外的价值。但是，在某些情况下，增加一个额外的用户超出了现有系统的容量。此后，每个额外用户减少每个其他用户获得的值。实际上，每增加一个用户都会增加系统总负载，导致忙音、无法获得拨号音和客户支持不佳。假设拥堵点低于潜在的市场规模，下一个临界点是获得的价值再次等于支付的价格。如果系统容量没有提高，网络在这一点上将停止增长。对等(P2P)系统是设计用于在其用户池之间分配负载的网络。这在理论上允许 P2P 网络无限扩展。基于 P2P 的电话服务 Skype 受益于这种效应，其增长主要受到市场饱和的限制。

Network effects are commonly mistaken for economies of scale, which result from business size rather than interoperability. To help clarify the distinction, people speak of demand side vs. supply side economies of scale. Classical economies of scale are on the production side, while network effects arise on the demand side. Network effects are also mistaken for economies of scope.模板:Cn Because of the positive feedback often associated with the network effect, system dynamics can be used as a modelling method to describe the phenomena. Word of mouth and the Bass diffusion model are also potentially applicable.

Network effects are commonly mistaken for economies of scale, which result from business size rather than interoperability. To help clarify the distinction, people speak of demand side vs. supply side economies of scale. Classical economies of scale are on the production side, while network effects arise on the demand side. Network effects are also mistaken for economies of scope. Because of the positive feedback often associated with the network effect, system dynamics can be used as a modelling method to describe the phenomena. Word of mouth and the Bass diffusion model are also potentially applicable.

网络效应通常被误认为是规模经济，这是业务规模而不是互操作性的结果。为了帮助澄清这个区别，人们谈到需求方与供应方的规模经济。传统的规模经济在生产方面，而网络效应在需求方面出现。网络效应也被误认为是范围经济。由于网络效应往往伴随着正反馈，系统动力学可以作为一种建模方法来描述这种现象。口碑和低音扩散模型也可能适用。

Technology lifecycle

If some existing technology or company whose benefits are largely based on network effects starts to lose market share against a challenger such as a disruptive technology or open standards based competition, the benefits of network effects will reduce for the incumbent, and increase for the challenger. In this model, a tipping point is eventually reached at which the network effects of the challenger dominate those of the former incumbent, and the incumbent is forced into an accelerating decline, whilst the challenger takes over the incumbent's former position.^{[citation needed]}

If some existing technology or company whose benefits are largely based on network effects starts to lose market share against a challenger such as a disruptive technology or open standards based competition, the benefits of network effects will reduce for the incumbent, and increase for the challenger. In this model, a tipping point is eventually reached at which the network effects of the challenger dominate those of the former incumbent, and the incumbent is forced into an accelerating decline, whilst the challenger takes over the incumbent's former position.

如果一些现有的技术或公司的利益主要是基于网络效应，开始失去市场份额的挑战者，如破坏性创新或开放标准为基础的竞争，网络效应的好处将减少现有的，并增加对挑战者。在这种模式中，最终达到一个临界点，在这个临界点上，挑战者的网络效应主导了前任者的网络效应，现任者被迫加速衰落，而挑战者接管了现任者的前任职位。

Lock-in

Network effects are notorious for causing lock-in with the most-cited examples being Microsoft products and the QWERTY keyboard.^[5] Vendor lock-in can be mitigated by opening the standards upon which users depend, allowing competition between implementations. This does not, however, mitigate industry-wide lock-in to the standard itself. Indeed, as there are now multiple vendors driving down the price and increasing the quality, more users are likely to adopt the standard, thereby creating greater industry-wide lock-in to the standard.

Network effects are notorious for causing lock-in with the most-cited examples being Microsoft products and the QWERTY keyboard. Vendor lock-in can be mitigated by opening the standards upon which users depend, allowing competition between implementations. This does not, however, mitigate industry-wide lock-in to the standard itself. Indeed, as there are now multiple vendors driving down the price and increasing the quality, more users are likely to adopt the standard, thereby creating greater industry-wide lock-in to the standard.

网络效应因引起锁定而臭名昭著，最常被引用的例子是微软的产品和 QWERTY 键盘。通过开放用户所依赖的标准，允许实现之间的竞争，供应商锁定可以得到缓解。但是，这并不能减轻整个行业对标准本身的锁定。事实上，由于现在有多个供应商压低价格，提高质量，更多的用户可能会采用标准，从而创造更大的行业范围的锁定标准。

Types

Broadly, there are two kinds of networks effects:

总的来说，有两种网络效应:

Direct network effects

Direct network effects

直接网络效应

An increase in usage leads to a direct increase in value for other users. For example, telephone systems, fax machines, and social networks all imply direct contact among users. A direct network effect is called a same-side network effect. An example is online gamers who benefit from participation of other gamers.

An increase in usage leads to a direct increase in value for other users. For example, telephone systems, fax machines, and social networks all imply direct contact among users. A direct network effect is called a same-side network effect. An example is online gamers who benefit from participation of other gamers.

使用量的增加会直接增加其他用户的价值。例如，电话系统、传真机和社交网络都暗示着用户之间的直接联系。直接的网络效应称为同侧网络效应。一个例子是从其他玩家的参与中受益的在线游戏玩家。

Indirect network effects

Indirect network effects

间接网络效应

Increases in usage of one product or network spawn increases in the value of a complementary product or network, which can, in turn, increase the value of the original. Examples of complementary goods include software (such as an Office suite for operating systems) and DVDs (for DVD players). This is also called a cross-side network effect. Windows and Linux might compete not just for users, but for software developers.^[6] Most two-sided markets (or platform-mediated markets) are characterized by indirect network effects.

Increases in usage of one product or network spawn increases in the value of a complementary product or network, which can, in turn, increase the value of the original. Examples of complementary goods include software (such as an Office suite for operating systems) and DVDs (for DVD players). This is also called a cross-side network effect. Windows and Linux might compete not just for users, but for software developers. Most two-sided markets (or platform-mediated markets) are characterized by indirect network effects.

增加一个产品或网络的使用量会增加一个补充产品或网络的价值，这反过来又会增加原产品的价值。补充商品的例子包括软件(如操作系统的 Office 套件)和 DVD (DVD 播放机)。这也被称为跨边网络效应。和 Linux 可能不仅仅是为了用户而竞争，而是为了软件开发者。大多数双边市场(或平台媒介市场)都是拥有属性间接的网络效应。

Additionally, there are two sources of economic value that are relevant when analyzing products that display network effects:

此外，在分析显示网络效应的产品时，有两个相关的经济价值来源:

Inherent value

Inherent value

内在价值

I derive value from my use of the product

I derive value from my use of the product

我从我对产品的使用中获得价值

Network value

Network value

网络价值

I derive value from other people's use of the product

I derive value from other people's use of the product

我从别人对产品的使用中获得价值

Negative network externalities

Negative network externalities, in the mathematical sense, are those that have a negative effect compared to normal (positive) network effects. Just as positive network externalities (network effects) cause positive feedback and exponential growth, negative network externalities create negative feedback and exponential decay. In nature, negative network externalities are the forces that pull towards equilibrium, are responsible for stability, and represent physical limitations keeping systems bounded.

负网络外部性，在数学意义上，是指那些与正常(正面)网络效应相比具有负面影响的外部性。正如正的网络外部性(网络效应)导致正反馈和指数增长，负的网络外部性创造负反馈和指数衰减。在本质上，负的网络外部性是拉向均衡的力量，负责稳定，并代表物理限制保持系统有界。

Congestion occurs when the efficiency of a network decreases as more people use it, and this reduces the value to people already using it. Traffic congestion that overloads the freeway and network congestion on connections with limited bandwidth both display negative network externalities.

当网络的效率随着越来越多的人使用它而降低时，拥塞就发生了，这就降低了已经在使用它的人的价值。超载高速公路的交通堵塞和有限带宽连接的拥塞控制都显示出负面的网络外部性。

Braess' paradox suggests that adding paths through a network can have a negative effect on performance of the network.^[7]

Braess' paradox suggests that adding paths through a network can have a negative effect on performance of the network.

布雷斯悖论认为，在网络中增加路径会对网络性能产生负面影响。

Interoperability

Interoperability has the effect of making the network bigger and thus increases the external value of the network to consumers. Interoperability achieves this primarily by increasing potential connections and secondarily by attracting new participants to the network. Other benefits of interoperability include reduced uncertainty, reduced lock-in, commoditization and competition based on price.^[1]^:229

Interoperability has the effect of making the network bigger and thus increases the external value of the network to consumers. Interoperability achieves this primarily by increasing potential connections and secondarily by attracting new participants to the network. Other benefits of interoperability include reduced uncertainty, reduced lock-in, commoditization and competition based on price.

互操作性的作用是使网络变得更大，从而增加了网络对消费者的外部价值。互操作性主要通过增加潜在的连接来实现这一点，其次是通过吸引新的参与者加入网络。互操作性的其他好处包括减少不确定性、减少锁定、商品化和基于价格的竞争。

Interoperability can be achieved through standardization or other cooperation. Companies involved in fostering interoperability face a tension between cooperating with their competitors to grow the potential market for products and competing for market share.^[1]^:227

Interoperability can be achieved through standardization or other cooperation. Companies involved in fostering interoperability face a tension between cooperating with their competitors to grow the potential market for products and competing for market share.

可以通过标准化或其他合作来实现互操作性。参与促进互操作性的公司面临着与竞争对手合作以扩大产品潜在市场和争夺市场份额之间的紧张关系。

Open versus closed standards

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In communication and information technologies, open standards and interfaces are often developed through the participation of multiple companies and are usually perceived to provide mutual benefit. But, in cases in which the relevant communication protocols or interfaces are closed standards, the network effect can give the company controlling those standards monopoly power. The Microsoft corporation is widely seen by computer professionals as maintaining its monopoly through these means. One observed method Microsoft uses to put the network effect to its advantage is called Embrace, extend and extinguish.^[8]

In communication and information technologies, open standards and interfaces are often developed through the participation of multiple companies and are usually perceived to provide mutual benefit. But, in cases in which the relevant communication protocols or interfaces are closed standards, the network effect can give the company controlling those standards monopoly power. The Microsoft corporation is widely seen by computer professionals as maintaining its monopoly through these means. One observed method Microsoft uses to put the network effect to its advantage is called Embrace, extend and extinguish.

在通信和信息技术方面，开放标准和界面往往是通过多个公司的参与制定的，通常被认为是互惠互利的。但是，在相关的通信协议或接口是封闭标准的情况下，网络效应可以赋予公司控制这些标准的垄断权力。计算机专业人士普遍认为，微软公司通过这些手段维持其垄断地位。微软用来使网络效应发挥其优势的一种观察方法被称为拥抱、扩展和消灭。

Mirabilis is an Israeli start-up which pioneered instant messaging (IM) and was bought by America Online. By giving away their ICQ product for free and preventing interoperability between their client software and other products, they were able to temporarily dominate the market for instant messaging. Because of the network effect, new IM users gained much more value by choosing to use the Mirabilis system (and join its large network of users) than they would using a competing system. As was typical for that era, the company never made any attempt to generate profits from its dominant position before selling the company.

Mirabilis 是一家以色列的初创公司，它开创了即时通讯信息服务，并被美国在线收购。通过免费提供 ICQ 产品，并阻止客户软件和其他产品之间的互操作性，他们能够暂时统治市场长达20年即时通讯。由于网络效应，新的 IM 用户选择使用 Mirabilis 系统(并加入其庞大的用户网络)比使用竞争系统获得了更多的价值。正如那个时代的典型做法一样，在出售公司之前，公司从未试图从其主导地位获得任何利润。

Examples

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Financial exchanges

Stock exchanges and derivatives exchanges feature a network effect. Market liquidity is a major determinant of transaction cost in the sale or purchase of a security, as a bid–ask spread exists between the price at which a purchase can be made versus the price at which the sale of the same security can be made. As the number of buyers and sellers on an exchange increases, liquidity increases, and transaction costs decrease. This then attracts a larger number of buyers and sellers to the exchange.

证券交易所和衍生品交易所具有网络效应。市场流动性是证券买卖中交易成本的一个主要决定因素，因为买入价与卖出同一证券的价格之间存在买卖价差。随着交易所中买家和卖家数量的增加，流动性增加，交易成本降低。这样就吸引了更多的买家和卖家到交易所来。

The network advantage of financial exchanges is apparent in the difficulty that startup exchanges have in dislodging a dominant exchange. For example, the Chicago Board of Trade has retained overwhelming dominance of trading in US Treasury bond futures despite the startup of Eurex US trading of identical futures contracts. Similarly, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange has maintained dominance in trading of Eurobond interest rate futures despite a challenge from Euronext.Liffe.

金融交易所的网络优势体现在初创交易所很难取代占主导地位的交易所。例如，尽管 Eurex US 启动了相同期货合约的交易，但芝加哥期货交易所(Chicago Board of Trade)在美国国债期货交易中保持了压倒性的主导地位。同样，尽管面临来自泛欧交易所的挑战，欧洲芝加哥商品交易所银行仍然在欧洲债券利率期货交易中保持着主导地位。女名女子名。

Software

There are very strong network effects operating in the market for widely used computer software.

有很强的网络效应运作在市场上广泛使用的计算机软件。

For many people choosing an office suite, prime considerations include how much value having learned that office suite will prove to potential employers, and how well the software interoperates with other users. That is, since learning to use an office suite takes many hours, users want to invest that time learning the office suite that will make them most attractive to potential employers and clients. Similarly, finding already-trained employees is a big concern for employers when deciding which office suite to purchase.

对于许多选择办公套件的人来说，主要的考虑因素包括了解办公套件对潜在雇主的价值有多大，以及该软件与其他用户的互操作性有多好。也就是说，由于学习使用一个办公套件需要花费很多时间，用户希望花费这些时间学习办公套件，这将使他们对潜在的雇主和客户最具吸引力。同样，雇主在决定购买哪套办公套房时，也非常关心是否能找到已经受过培训的员工。

In 2007 Apple released the iPhone followed by the app store. Most iPhone apps rely heavily on the existence of strong network effects. This enables the software to grow in popularity very quickly and spread to a large userbase with very limited marketing needed. The Freemium business model has evolved to take advantage of these network effects by releasing a free version that will not limit the adoption or any users and then charge for premium features as the primary source of revenue.

2007年，苹果发布了 iPhone，紧随其后的是应用商店。大多数 iPhone 应用程序严重依赖于强大的网络效应。这使得该软件能够迅速普及并扩展到大量用户，而市场需求却非常有限。免费商业模式已经发展到利用这些网络效应，发布一个免费版本，不会限制用户或任何用户，然后收取额外费用作为主要的收入来源。

Web sites

Many web sites benefit from a network effect. One example is web marketplaces and exchanges. For example, eBay would not be a particularly useful site if auctions were not competitive. As the number of users grows on eBay, auctions grow more competitive, pushing up the prices of bids on items. This makes it more worthwhile to sell on eBay and brings more sellers onto eBay, which, in turn, drives prices down again due to increased supply. Increased supply brings even more buyers to eBay. Essentially, as the number of users of eBay grows, prices fall and supply increases, and more and more people find the site to be useful.

许多网站受益于网络效应。网络市场和交易所就是一个例子。例如，如果拍卖没有竞争性，eBay 就不会是一个特别有用的网站。随着 eBay 用户数量的增加，拍卖竞争越来越激烈，推高了商品的出价。这使得在 eBay 上卖东西更有价值，也为 eBay 带来了更多的卖家，反过来，由于供应增加，价格再次下跌。供应的增加给 eBay 带来了更多的买家。基本上，随着 eBay 用户数量的增加，价格下降，供应增加，越来越多的人发现这个网站是有用的。< ! -- 用户: kvng/rth-- >

Network effects were used as justification for some of the dot-com business models in the late 1990s. These firms operated under the belief that when a new market comes into being which contains strong network effects, firms should care more about growing their market share than about becoming profitable. This was believed because market share will determine which firm can set technical and marketing standards and thus determine the basis of future competition.

网络效应在1990年代后期被用作一些网络公司商业模式的理由。这些公司的经营理念是，当一个新的市场形成时，包含了强大的网络效应，公司应该更关心增加他们的市场份额，而不是变得有利可图。之所以这样认为，是因为市场份额将决定哪家公司能够制定技术和营销标准，从而决定未来竞争的基础。

Social networking websites are good examples. The more people register onto a social networking website, the more useful the website is to its registrants.^[9]

Social networking websites are good examples. The more people register onto a social networking website, the more useful the website is to its registrants.

社交网站就是很好的例子。越多的人注册到一个社交网站，更有用的网站是它的注册者。

Alexa Internet uses a technology that tracks users' surfing patterns; thus Alexa's Related Sites results improve as more users use the technology. Alexa's network relies heavily on a small number of browser software relationships, which makes the network more vulnerable to competition.

互联网使用了一种跟踪用户上网模式的技术; 因此，随着更多用户使用这种技术，Alexa 的相关网站的搜索结果会得到改善。的网络严重依赖于少量的浏览器软件关系，这使得网络更容易受到竞争。

Google has also attempted to create a network effect in its advertising business with its Google AdSense service. Google AdSense places ads on many small sites, such as blogs, using Google technology to determine which ads are relevant to which blogs. Thus, the service appears to aim to serve as an exchange (or ad network) for matching many advertisers with many small sites (such as blogs). In general, the more blogs Google AdSense can reach, the more advertisers it will attract, making it the most attractive option for more blogs, and so on, making the network more valuable for all participants.

谷歌还试图通过其 Google AdSense 服务在其广告业务中创造一种网络效应。谷歌 AdSense 在许多小网站上放置广告，比如博客，使用谷歌技术来确定哪些广告与哪些博客相关。因此，该服务似乎旨在作为一个交换(或广告网络) ，以匹配许多广告客户与许多小网站(如博客)。一般来说，Google AdSense 能接触到的博客越多，它吸引的广告商就越多，这使它成为更多博客的最有吸引力的选择，等等，这使得网络对所有参与者更有价值。

By contrast, the value of a news site is primarily proportional to the quality of the articles, not to the number of other people using the site. Similarly, the first generation of search sites experienced little network effect, as the value of the site was based on the value of the search results. This allowed Google to win users away from Yahoo! without much trouble, once users believed that Google's search results were superior. Some commentators mistook the value of the Yahoo! brand (which does increase as more people know of it) for a network effect protecting its advertising business.

相比之下，新闻网站的价值主要与文章的质量成正比，而不是与使用该网站的其他人的数量成正比。同样，第一代搜索网站几乎没有经历过网络效应，因为网站的价值是基于搜索结果的价值。这使得谷歌能够从雅虎手中赢得用户！没有太多的麻烦，一旦用户相信谷歌的搜索结果是优越的。一些评论家误解了雅虎的价值！品牌(这确实增加了更多的人知道它)的网络效应保护其广告业务。

Rail gauge

文件:Rail gauge world.svg

The dominant rail gauge in each country shown

每个国家的主要轨距

There are strong network effects in the initial choice of rail gauge, and in gauge conversion decisions. Even when placing isolated rails not connected to any other lines, track layers usually choose a standard rail gauge so they can use off-the-shelf rolling stock. Although a few manufacturers make rolling stock that can adjust to different rail gauges, most manufacturers make rolling stock that only works with one of the standard rail gauges.

在最初的轨距选择和轨距换算决策中存在着强烈的网络效应。即使在放置没有连接到任何其他线路的独立轨道时，轨道层通常选择一个标准轨距，这样他们就可以使用现成的机车车辆。虽然一些制造商制造的铁路车辆可以调整到不同的轨距，但大多数制造商制造的铁路车辆只能使用一个标准轨距。

References

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Carl Shapiro and Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 0-87584-863-X. https://archive.org/details/informationrules00shap.
↑ "It's All In Your Head". Forbes. 2007-05-07. Retrieved 2010-12-10.
↑ Knut Blind (2004). The economics of standards: theory, evidence, policy. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84376-793-0.
↑ Buley, Taylor (2009-07-31). "How To Value Your Networks". Forbes. Retrieved 2010-12-10.
↑ Robert M. Grant (2009). Contemporary Strategy Analysis. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-74710-0.
↑ Nicholas Economides and Evangelos Katsamakas (May 2008). "Two-sided competition of proprietary vs. open source technology platforms and the implications for the software industry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2010-12-10.
↑ Lin, Henry; Roughgarden, Tim; Tardos, Éva; Walkover, Asher. "Stronger Bounds on Braess's Paradox and the Maximum Latency of Selfish Routing" (PDF). Stanford Theory. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
↑ "US Department of Justice Proposed Findings of Fact". Usdoj.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-28.
↑ Belvaux, Bertrand (2011). "The Development of Social Media: Proposal for a Diffusion Model Incorporating Network Externalities in a Competitive Environment". Recherche et Applications en Marketing - English Version. 26 (3): 7–22. doi:10.1177/205157071102600301.

External links

Coordination and Lock-In: Competition with Switching Costs and Network Effects, Joseph Farrell and Paul Klemperer.

Network Externalities (Effects), S. J. Liebowitz, Stephen E. Margolis.

An Overview of Network Effects, Arun Sundararajan.

The Economics of Networks, Nicholas Economides.

Madureira, António; den Hartog, Frank; Bouwman, Harry; Baken, Nico (2013). "Empirical validation of Metcalfe's law: How Internet usage patterns have changed over time". Information Economics and Policy. 25 (4): 246–256. doi:10.1016/j.infoecopol.2013.07.002.

Category:Business models

类别: 商业模式

Category:Economics effects

分类: 经济效应

Category:Monopoly (economics)

类别: 垄断(经济学)

Category:Networks

类别: 网络

Category:Technological change

类别: 技术变革

Category:Transport economics

分类: 运输经济学

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Network effect. Its edit history can be viewed at 网络效应/edithistory

[Shapiro-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 Carl Shapiro and Hal R. Varian (1999). Information Rules. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 0-87584-863-X. https://archive.org/details/informationrules00shap.

[2] "It's All In Your Head". Forbes. 2007-05-07. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

[3] Knut Blind (2004). The economics of standards: theory, evidence, policy. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84376-793-0.

[4] Buley, Taylor (2009-07-31). "How To Value Your Networks". Forbes. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

[5] Robert M. Grant (2009). Contemporary Strategy Analysis. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-74710-0.

[6] Nicholas Economides and Evangelos Katsamakas (May 2008). "Two-sided competition of proprietary vs. open source technology platforms and the implications for the software industry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

[7] Lin, Henry; Roughgarden, Tim; Tardos, Éva; Walkover, Asher. "Stronger Bounds on Braess's Paradox and the Maximum Latency of Selfish Routing" (PDF). Stanford Theory. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Retrieved 16 September 2014.

[8] "US Department of Justice Proposed Findings of Fact". Usdoj.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-28.

[9] Belvaux, Bertrand (2011). "The Development of Social Media: Proposal for a Diffusion Model Incorporating Network Externalities in a Competitive Environment". Recherche et Applications en Marketing - English Version. 26 (3): 7–22. doi:10.1177/205157071102600301.

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