社会影响

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Social influence refers to the way in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. [1] In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.[2]

Social influence refers to the way in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.

社会影响是指个体为了满足社会环境的要求而改变其行为的方式。它有多种形式，可以从整合、社会化、同伴压力、服从、领导力、说服力、销售和营销中看出来。一般来说，社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特 · 凯尔曼确定了三种广泛的社会影响。


  1. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private.

Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private.

顺从是指人们表面上同意他人的意见，但实际上却将他们的反对意见保密。

  1. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.

Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.

认同感是指人们受到某个受人喜爱和尊敬的人的影响，比如一个名人。

  1. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.

Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.

内化是指人们接受一种信仰或行为，并在公开场合和私下里达成一致。


Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence).[3] Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.[2]

Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence). Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.

莫顿 · 多伊奇和哈罗德 · 杰拉德描述了两种导致人们顺从他人期望的心理需求。这些包括我们需要正确(信息社会影响)和我们需要被喜欢(规范的社会影响)。信息影响(或社会证明)是指接受他人信息作为现实证据的影响。当人们不确定的时候，信息的影响就会发挥作用，要么是因为刺激本身就是模棱两可的，要么是因为存在社会分歧。规范性影响是一种符合他人积极期望的影响。在凯尔曼的类型学中，规范性影响导致公众遵从，而信息性影响导致私人接受。


Types

Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. For more information, follow the main article links provided.

Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. For more information, follow the main article links provided.

社会影响是一个宽泛的术语，涉及许多不同的现象。下面列出了社会心理学领域正在研究的一些主要的社会影响类型。有关更多信息，请关注本文提供的主要链接。


Kelman's varieties

There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution.[2] The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).

There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).

哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特 · 凯尔曼在1958年发表在《冲突解决期刊》上的一篇论文中定义了态度转变的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是为了帮助确定社会影响的效果: 例如，将公共服从(行为)与私人接受(个人信仰)分开。


Compliance

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Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures.[4] According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).[2]

Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).

顺从是对他人提出的明确或隐含的要求作出积极回应的行为。从技术上讲，服从是行为上的改变，但不一定是态度上的改变; 一个人可以仅仅因为服从而服从，或者由于社会压力而选择隐藏自己的想法。根据凯尔曼1958年的论文，从顺从中获得的满足感来自于接受影响的社会效应(即人们顺从于期望的奖励或惩罚厌恶)。


Identification

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Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.[2]

Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.

认同是由于受到钦佩的人的影响而改变态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这一现象。按照凯尔曼的说法，这个标识符所期望的关系与行为或态度的改变有关。


Internalization

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Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".[2]

Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".

内化是接受对个人有影响的人或群体所建立的一套规范的过程。个人之所以接受影响，是因为所接受的影响的内容本质上是有益的。它与个人的价值体系是一致的，在凯尔曼看来，内化的“报酬”是“新行为的内容”。


Conformity

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Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms).[4]

Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms).

从众是一种社会影响，包括行为、信仰或思想的改变，以便与他人或规范标准保持一致。它是最普遍和最普遍的社会影响形式。整合的社会心理学研究倾向于区分两种类型: 信息整合(也称为社会证明，或“内在化”的凯尔曼术语)和规范整合(“顺从”的凯尔曼术语)。


In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others.

In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others.

在同伴压力的情况下，一个人被说服去做一些他们可能不想做的事情(比如吸食非法毒品) ，但是他们认为这些事情对于与其他人(比如他们的朋友)保持积极的关系是“必要的”。来自同伴压力的一致性通常源于对群体成员的认同，或者源于某些成员为了安抚其他成员的顺从。


Minority influence

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Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).[5] Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.[6]

Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.

少数群体的影响是指多数群体受到影响而接受少数群体的信仰或行为。少数群体的影响可能受到多数群体和少数群体的规模、少数群体的一致性水平以及情境因素(如少数群体的富裕程度或社会重要性)的影响。少数群体的影响通常是通过信息性的社会影响(而不是规范性的社会影响)发挥作用的，因为多数群体可能对少数群体的喜好无动于衷。


Self-fulfilling prophecy

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A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948.引用错误：没有找到与</ref>对应的<ref>标签

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Reactance

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Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure.[7] It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.[8]

Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure. It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.

反抗是采纳一种观点，与一个人被迫接受的观点相反，这种观点可能是由于行为自由受到了威胁。这种现象也被称为反整合。虽然结果与影响者的预期相反，反应行为是社会压力的结果。值得注意的是，反顺从并不一定意味着独立。在许多研究中，反抗表现为对某种影响的刻意排斥，即使这种影响显然是正确的。


Obedience

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Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The Milgram experiment, Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment, and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures.

Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The Milgram experiment, Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment, and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures.

服从是一种来自权威人物的社会影响力。米尔格拉姆实验、津巴多的斯坦福监狱实验和霍夫林医院的实验是3个特别著名的关于服从的实验，他们都得出结论，人类在感知到的合法权威人物面前出奇地顺从。


Persuasion

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Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.[9]

Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.

说服是指通过理性或象征性的手段引导自己或他人采取某种态度的过程。罗伯特 · 恰尔迪尼定义了六种“影响力武器” : 互惠、承诺、社会认同、权威、喜好和匮乏。这些“有影响力的武器”试图通过直接手段实现一致性。说服可以通过诉诸理性或诉诸情感来进行。


Psychological manipulation

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Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics.[10] By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.

Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.

心理操纵是一种社会影响，旨在通过辱骂、欺骗或卑鄙的手段改变他人的行为或感知。通过推进操纵者的利益，经常以牺牲他人的利益为代价，这些方法可以被认为是剥削性的、虐待性的、狡猾的和欺骗性的。


Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation.

Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation.

社会影响并不一定是负面的。例如，医生可以试图说服病人改变不健康的习惯。如果社会影响尊重受影响者接受或拒绝社会影响的权利，一般认为这种影响是无害的，而且不具有过分的强制性。取决于背景和动机，社会影响可能构成秘密操纵。


Abusive power and control

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Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.[11]

Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship.

控制型施虐者使用各种手段对受害者施加权力和控制。施虐者的目的是控制和恐吓受害者，或影响他们感到他们在关系中没有平等的发言权。


Propaganda

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Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.[12]

Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.

宣传是不客观的信息，主要用于影响受众和推动议程，通常是通过有选择地提出事实，以鼓励某种特定的综合或感知，或使用负载的语言产生情感，而不是对所提供的信息的理性反应。


Hard power

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Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power.[13] Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.[13]

Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history.

硬实力是运用军事和经济手段影响其他政治团体的行为或利益。这种形式的政治权力往往是侵略性的(胁迫) ，当一个政治机构强加给另一个军事和/或经济实力较弱的机构时，这种形式的政治权力最为有效。来自外交、文化和历史的软实力与硬实力形成了鲜明的对比。


Antecedents

Many factors can affect the impact of social influence.

Many factors can affect the impact of social influence.

影响社会影响力的因素很多。


Social impact theory

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Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:[14]

Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:

社会影响理论是比布 · 拉坦内在1981年提出的。这个理论认为有三个因素可以增加一个人对社会影响的反应:


  • Strength: The importance of the influencing group to the individual
  • Immediacy: Physical (and temporal) proximity of the influencing group to the individual at the time of the influence attempt
  • Number: The number of people in the group


Cialdini's "weapons of influence"

Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:[9][15]

Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader:

罗伯特•恰尔迪尼(Robert Cialdini)定义了六种“影响力武器” ，它们可以提高一个人被说服者影响的倾向:

  • Commitment and consistency: People do not like to be self-contradictory. Once they commit to an idea or behavior, they are averse to changing their minds without good reason.
  • Social proof: People will be more open to things that they see others doing. For example, seeing others compost their organic waste after finishing a meal may influence the subject to do so as well.[16]
  • Authority: People will tend to obey authority figures.
  • Liking: People are more easily swayed by people they like.
  • Scarcity: A perceived limitation of resources will generate demand.


Unanimity

Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.[17]

Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments, 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered the maximum shocks.

社会影响力是最强大的，当团体犯下它是一致的和承诺。即使是一个不同意见的例子也可能大大削弱一个影响力。例如，在米尔格拉姆的第一组服从实验中，65% 的参与者遵从假的权威人物对同伙实施“最大电击”。在米尔格拉姆实验的反复实验中，3个人实施电击(其中2个是同盟者) ，一旦一个同盟者不服从，只有10% 的受试者实施最大电击。


Status

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See also: Reputation

Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility, a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase the tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink.[18] Appeals to authority may especially affect norms of obedience. The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority.

Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility, a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase the tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink. Appeals to authority may especially affect norms of obedience. The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority.

那些被认为是专家的人可能会因为他们被认为是专家而产生社会影响。这涉及到可信度，一种社会影响的工具，人们可以从中借鉴信任的概念。人们相信一个人是可信的，原因有很多，比如经验，吸引力，知识等等。此外，维护自己的声誉而不被视为边缘人物的压力可能会增加人们赞同这个群体的倾向。这种现象被称为群体思维。对权威的诉求尤其会影响服从的准则。在著名的米尔格拉姆实验中，正常人对权威的顺从展示了感知到的权威的力量。


Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit." Likewise, celebrities don't usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status.

Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade the public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the "bully pulpit." Likewise, celebrities don't usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status.

那些能够接触到媒体的人可以利用这种接触来试图影响公众。例如，一个政治家可能利用演讲来说服公众支持他或她没有权力强加于公众的问题。这通常被称为利用“天字第一号讲坛”同样，名人通常并不拥有任何政治权力，但他们是世界上许多公民所熟悉的，因此，拥有社会地位。


Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with the suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children.[19]

Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with the suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children.

权力是一个人感到需要跟随他人建议的最大原因之一。一个人谁拥有更多的权威(或被认为是更强大的)比其他人在一个群体是一个图标或是最“流行”的群体。这个人对其他人的影响力最大。例如，在一个孩子的学校生活中，那些似乎控制学校里学生的观念的人在对其他孩子产生社会影响方面是最强大的。


Culture

Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France.[20] This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past.[8]

Culture appears to play a role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France. This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However, a 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past.

文化似乎在个人遵守群体标准的意愿中发挥着作用。斯坦利 · 米尔格拉姆发现，挪威的从众程度高于法国。这被归因于挪威长期以来的社会责任传统，而法国的文化重点是个人主义。日本同样具有集体主义文化，因此具有更高的从众倾向。然而，一项1970年的 Asch 式研究发现，当被疏远时，日本学生更容易产生反从众情绪(即使在合作答案正确的情况下，他们给出的答案也是不正确的) ，这个比例是三分之一，明显高于过去 Asch 研究中的水平。


While gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such a likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about a subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof".[21]

While gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such a likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about a subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof".

虽然性别不会显著影响一个人遵守规则的可能性，但在某些情况下，性别角色确实会影响这种可能性。20世纪50年代和60年代的研究得出结论，女性比男性更容易随大流。但是1971年的一项研究发现实验者有偏见; 所有的研究人员都是男性，而所有的研究参与者都是女性。此后的研究发现，两性之间遵守规则的可能性几乎相等。此外，当面对传统的女性话题时，男性更容易保持一致，而当面对男性话题时，女性更容易保持一致。换句话说，对一个主体的无知会导致一个人服从于“社会证明”。


Emotions

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Emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity.[7] In 2009, a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group.[22]

Emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity.

情绪和性格可能会影响个人从众或反从众的可能性。


Social structure

Social networks

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A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity,[23] smoking,[24][25] drinking[26] and happiness.[27]

A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness.

社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构，这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系，也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域，自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如，克里斯塔基斯和福勒发现，社会网络传递的状态和行为，如肥胖，吸烟，饮酒和幸福。


Identifying the extent of social influence, based on large-scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to US presidential elections,[28][29] stock markets,[30] and civil unrest.[31]

Identifying the extent of social influence, based on large-scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to US presidential elections, stock markets, and civil unrest.

根据具有潜在社会网络结构的大规模观察数据，确定社会影响的程度，与各种集体社会现象有关，包括犯罪、社会动乱和选举中的投票行为。例如，将同龄人的社会影响从外部影响中分离出来的方法——利用潜在的社会网络结构和大规模观察数据——被应用于美国总统选举、股市和社会动荡。


However, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies.[32][33][34] In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data.[35][36]

However, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data.

然而，社会影响的传染模型已经发现了重要的缺陷，这种模型被假设并应用于上述许多研究中。为了克服这些缺陷，人们提出了因果推理方法，以便在使用观测数据时系统地区分社会影响和其他可能的混杂因素。


Global approach to the phenomenon of influence

Provisional introduction

As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of Influence is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators.[37]

As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of Influence is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators.

如上所述，理论方法是知识集群的形式。缺少一个全球影响力理论，以便于理解和教育人们如何防范操纵者。


See also


References

  1. ↑ Social Influence [1]
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Kelman, H. (1958). "Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change" (PDF). Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2 (1): 51–60. doi:10.1177/002200275800200106.
  3. ↑ Deutsch, M.; Gerard, H. B. (1955). "A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 51 (3): 629–636. doi:10.1037/h0046408. PMID 13286010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
  5. ↑ Moscovici, S. and Nemeth (1974) Minority influence. In C. Nemetn (ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations (pp. 217-249), Chicago:Rand McNally
  6. ↑ Wood, W.; Lundgren, S.; Ouellette, J.; Busceme, S.; Blackstone, T. (1994). "Minority Influence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Social Influence Processes". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (3): 323–345. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.323. PMID 8016284. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Frager, R (1970). "Conformity and anti-conformity in Japan". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 15 (3): 203–210. doi:10.1037/h0029434.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  10. ↑ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. ISBN 978-0-07-144672-3. 
  11. ↑ Jill Cory; Karen McAndless-Davis. When Love Hurts: A Woman's Guide to Understanding Abuse in Relationships. WomanKind Press; 1 January 2000.
    . p. 30.
  12. ↑ Smith, Bruce L. (17 February 2016). "Propaganda". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Daryl Copeland (Feb 2, 2010). "Hard Power Vs. Soft Power". The Mark. Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  14. ↑ Latané, B (1981). "The psychology of social impact". American Psychologist. 36 (4): 343–356. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.4.343.
  15. ↑ "What are the 6 principles of influence?". conceptually.org. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
  16. ↑ Sussman, R.; Gifford, R. (2013). "Be the Change You Want to See: Modeling Food Composting in Public Places". Environment & Behavior. 45 (3): 323–343. doi:10.1177/0013916511431274. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Milgram, Stanley (1963). "Behavioral Study of Obedience". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 67 (4): 371–378. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.599.92. doi:10.1037/h0040525. PMID 14049516. Archived from the original on 2012-07-17. Full-text PDF. -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期June 11, 2011，.
  18. ↑ Ivory Tower Unswayed by Crashing Economy. New York Times.
  19. ↑ C. Mugny; L Souchet; C Codaccioni; A Quiamzade (2008). Social Representation and Social Influence. 53 (2), pg 223-237.
  20. ↑ Blass, T. (2004). The man who shocked the world: The life and legacy of Stanley Milgram. New York: Basic Books.
  21. ↑ Sistrunk, Frank; McDavid, John W.; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 17(2), Feb, 1971. pp. 200-207.
  22. ↑ EurekAlert. (2009). Fear or romance could make you change your mind, U of Minnesota study finds.
  23. ↑ Christakis, N.A.; Fowler, J.H. (2007). "The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network Over 32 Years". New England Journal of Medicine. 357 (4): 370–379. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.581.4893. doi:10.1056/nejmsa066082. PMID 17652652.
  24. ↑ Christakis, N.A.; Fowler, J.H. (2008). "The Collective Dynamics of Smoking in a Large Social Network". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (21): 2249–2258. doi:10.1056/nejmsa0706154. PMC 2822344. PMID 18499567.
  25. ↑ Gina Kolata, "Study Finds Big Social Factor in Quitting Smoking," The New York Times, May 22, 2008.
  26. ↑ Rosenquist, J.N.; Murabito, J.; Fowler, J.H.; Christakis, N.A. (2010). "The Spread of Alcohol Consumption Behavior in a Large Social Network". Annals of Internal Medicine. 152 (7): 426–433. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-152-7-201004060-00007. PMC 3343772. PMID 20368648.
  27. ↑ Fowler, J.H.; Christakis, N.A. (2008). "The Dynamic Spread of Happiness in a Large Social Network: Longitudinal Analysis Over 20 Years in the Framingham Heart Study". British Medical Journal. 337: a2338. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2338. PMC 2600606. PMID 19056788.
  28. ↑ Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). Voting Contagion. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.
  29. ↑ Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970
  30. ↑ Harmon, D.; Lagi, M.; de Aguiar, M. A.; Chinellato, D. D.; Braha, D.; Epstein, I. R.; Bar-Yam, Y. (2015). "Anticipating economic market crises using measures of collective panic". PLOS One. 10 (7): e0131871. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1031871H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131871. PMC 4506134. PMID 26185988.
  31. ↑ Braha, D (2012). "Global civil unrest: contagion, self-organization, and prediction". PLOS One. 7 (10): e48596. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748596B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048596. PMC 3485346. PMID 23119067.
  32. ↑ Lerman, Kristina (13 May 2016). "Information Is Not a Virus, and Other Consequences of Human Cognitive Limits". Future Internet. 8 (4): 21. arXiv:1605.02660. Bibcode:2016arXiv160502660L. doi:10.3390/fi8020021.
  33. ↑ Lyons, Russell (2011). "The spread of evidence-poor medicine via flawed social-network analysis". Statistics, Politics, and Policy. 2 (1). arXiv:1007.2876. doi:10.2202/2151-7509.1024.
  34. ↑ Tufekci, Zeynep (2014). "Big questions for social media big data: Representativeness, validity and other methodological pitfalls". Eighth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. arXiv:1403.7400. Bibcode:2014arXiv1403.7400T.
  35. ↑ Liotsiou, Dimitra; Halford, Susan; Moreau, Luc (2016). "Social Influence: From Contagion to a Richer Causal Understanding". Social Informatics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 10047. pp. 116–132. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47874-6_9. ISBN 978-3-319-47873-9. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/401369/1/DLiotsiouSocialInfluenceCausalityCR.pdf. 
  36. ↑ Shalizi, Cosma Rohilla; Thomas, Andrew C (2011). "Homophily and contagion are generically confounded in observational social network studies". Sociological Methods & Research. 40 (2): 211–239. doi:10.1177/0049124111404820. PMC 3328971. PMID 22523436.
  37. ↑ http://www.theory-influence.com/books/Document_UK_WEB.pdf


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Category:Social status

类别: 社会地位


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