社会影响
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Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.[1]
Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals change their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales, and marketing. Typically social influence results from a specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.
社会影响包括个人为了满足社会环境的需求而改变其行为的方式。它有多种形式，可以从整合、社会化、同伴压力、服从、领导力、说服力、销售和营销中看出来。一般来说，社会影响源于特定的行为、命令或要求，但人们也会根据自己对他人行为或想法的理解而改变自己的态度和行为。1958年，哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特 · 凯尔曼确定了三种广泛的社会影响。
- Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions private.
- Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.
Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. For more information, follow the main article links provided.
社会影响是一个宽泛的术语，涉及许多不同的现象。下面列出了社会心理学领域正在研究的一些主要的社会影响类型。有关更多信息，请关注本文提供的主要链接。
- Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be liked (normative social influence).[2] Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.[1]
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution. The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).
哈佛大学心理学家赫伯特 · 凯尔曼在1958年发表在《冲突解决期刊》上的一篇论文中定义了态度转变的三个过程。定义这些过程的目的是为了帮助确定社会影响的效果: 例如，将公共服从(行为)与私人接受(个人信仰)分开。
Types
Social influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology. For more information, follow the main article links provided.
Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures.
顺从是对他人提出的明确或隐含的要求作出积极回应的行为。从技术上讲，服从是行为上的改变，但不一定是态度上的改变; 一个人可以仅仅因为服从而服从，或者由于社会压力而选择隐藏自己的想法。
Kelman's varieties
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution.[1] The purpose of defining these processes was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief).
Compliance
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.
认同是由于受到钦佩的人的影响而改变态度或行为。依靠名人代言来推销其产品的广告正在利用这一现象。按照凯尔曼的说法，这个标识符所期望的关系与行为或态度的改变有关。
Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures.[3] According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).[1]
Identification
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".
内化是接受对个人有影响的人或群体所建立的一套规范的过程。个人之所以接受影响，是因为所接受的影响的内容本质上是有益的。它与个人的价值体系是一致的，在凯尔曼看来，内化的“报酬”是“新行为的内容”。
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change.[1]
Internalization
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms).
从众是一种社会影响，包括行为、信仰或思想的改变，以便与他人或规范标准保持一致。它是最普遍和最普遍的社会影响形式。整合的社会心理学研究倾向于区分两种类型: 信息整合(也称为社会证明，或“内在化”的凯尔曼术语)和规范整合(“顺从”的凯尔曼术语)。
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".[1]
In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others.
在同伴压力的情况下，一个人被说服去做一些他们可能不想做的事情(比如吸食非法毒品) ，但是他们认为这些事情对于与其他人(比如他们的朋友)保持积极的关系是“必要的”。来自同伴压力的一致性通常源于对群体成员的认同，或者源于某些成员为了安抚其他成员的顺从。
Conformity
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof, or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms).[3]
Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).
少数群体的影响是指多数群体受到影响而接受少数群体的信仰或行为。少数群体的影响可能受到多数群体和少数群体的规模、少数群体的一致性水平以及情境因素(如少数群体的富裕程度或社会重要性)的影响。
In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people (such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group members or from compliance of some members to appease others.
Many factors can affect the impact of social influence.
影响社会影响力的因素很多。
Minority influence
Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority).[4] Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence) because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.[5]
Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence:
社会影响理论是比布 · 拉坦内在1981年提出的。这个理论认为有三个因素可以增加一个人对社会影响的反应:
Self-fulfilling prophecy
While gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such a likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about a subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof". In 2009, a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group.
虽然性别不会显著影响一个人遵守规则的可能性，但在某些情况下，性别角色确实会影响这种可能性。20世纪50年代和60年代的研究得出结论，女性比男性更容易随大流。但是1971年的一项研究发现实验者有偏见; 所有的研究人员都是男性，而所有的研究参与者都是女性。此后的研究发现，两性之间遵守规则的可能性几乎相等。此外，当面对传统的女性话题时，男性更容易保持一致，而当面对男性话题时，女性更容易保持一致。换句话说，对一个主体的无知会导致一个人服从于“社会证明”。2009年，一项研究得出结论，恐惧增加了与群体达成一致的机会，而浪漫或欲望则增加了与群体对立的机会。
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948.[6]
Reactance
Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure.[7] It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies, reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.[8]
As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of Influence is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators.
如上所述，理论方法是知识集群的形式。缺少一个全球影响力理论，以便于理解和教育人们如何防范操纵者。
Obedience
Persuasion
Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.[9]
Psychological manipulation
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics.[10] By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.
Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation.
Abusive power and control
Category:Social status
类别: 社会地位
This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Social influence. Its edit history can be viewed at 社会影响/edithistory
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Kelman, H. (1958). "Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processes of attitude change" (PDF). Journal of Conflict Resolution. 2 (1): 51–60. doi:10.1177/002200275800200106.
- ↑ Deutsch, M. & Gerard, H. B. (1955). "A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 51 (3): 629–636. doi:10.1037/h0046408. PMID 13286010.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert. Social Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
- ↑ Moscovici, S. and Nemeth (1974) Minority influence. In C. Nemetn (ed.), Social psychology: Classic and contemporary integrations (pp. 217–249), Chicago:Rand McNally
- ↑ Wood, W.; Lundgren, S.; Ouellette, J.; Busceme, S. & Blackstone, T. (1994). "Minority Influence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Social Influence Processes". Psychological Bulletin. 115 (3): 323–345. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.323. PMID 8016284.
- ↑ Merton, Robert K. (1948), "The Self Fulfilling Prophecy", Antioch Review, 8
A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties, also called edges, connections, or links) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses the lens of network theory to examine social relationships. Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness.
社会网络是由节点(代表个人或组织)组成的社会结构,这些节点通过一种或多种相互依赖类型(如友谊、共同利益或信仰、性关系或亲属关系)相互联系(通过关系,也称为边缘、联系或联系)。社会网络分析使用网络理论的视角来研究社会关系。社会网络分析作为一个领域,自20世纪中叶以来在确定社会影响的途径和效果方面已经变得越来越突出。例如,克里斯塔基斯和福勒发现,社会网络传递的状态和行为,如肥胖,吸烟,饮酒和幸福。 (2 (Summer)
Identifying the extent of social influence, based on large-scale observational data with a latent social network structure, is pertinent to a variety of collective social phenomena including crime, civil unrest, and voting behavior in elections. For example, methodologies for disentangling social influence by peers from external influences—with latent social network structures and large-scale observational data—were applied to US presidential elections, stock markets, and civil unrest.
根据具有潜在社会网络结构的大规模观察数据,确定社会影响的程度,与各种集体社会现象有关,包括犯罪、社会动乱和选举中的投票行为。例如,将同龄人的社会影响从外部影响中分离出来的方法——利用潜在的社会网络结构和大规模观察数据——被应用于美国总统选举、股市和社会动荡。): 193–210, doi:10.2307/4609267, JSTOR [//www.jstor.org/stable/4609267
However, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data.
然而，社会影响的传染模型已经发现了重要的缺陷，这种模型被假设并应用于上述许多研究中。为了克服这些缺陷，人们提出了因果推理方法，以便在使用观测数据时系统地区分社会影响和其他可能的混杂因素。 4609267
However, important flaws have been identified in the contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data.
然而，社会影响的传染模型已经发现了重要的缺陷，这种模型被假设并应用于上述许多研究中。为了克服这些缺陷，人们提出了因果推理方法，以便在使用观测数据时系统地区分社会影响和其他可能的混杂因素。]
{{citation}}: Check|jstor=value (help); line feed character in|issue=at position 11 (help); line feed character in|jstor=at position 8 (help); line feed character in|volume=at position 2 (help) - ↑ Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press
- ↑ Frager, R (1970). "Conformity and anti-conformity in Japan". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 15 (3): 203–210. doi:10.1037/h0029434.
- ↑ Cialdini, Robert B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
- ↑ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. ISBN 978-0-07-144672-3.