基于主体模型

来自集智百科 - 复杂系统|人工智能|复杂科学|复杂网络|自组织
Moonscar（讨论 | 贡献）2020年10月25日 (日) 17:43的版本 （Moved page from wikipedia:en:Agent-based model (history)）
跳到导航 跳到搜索

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共380，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

模板:Use mdy dates

An agent-based model (ABM) is a class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to introduce randomness. Particularly within ecology, ABMs are also called individual-based models (IBMs),[1] and individuals within IBMs may be simpler than fully autonomous agents within ABMs. A review of recent literature on individual-based models, agent-based models, and multiagent systems shows that ABMs are used on non-computing related scientific domains including biology, ecology and social science.[2] Agent-based modeling is related to, but distinct from, the concept of multi-agent systems or multi-agent simulation in that the goal of ABM is to search for explanatory insight into the collective behavior of agents obeying simple rules, typically in natural systems, rather than in designing agents or solving specific practical or engineering problems.[2]

An agent-based model (ABM) is a class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the system as a whole. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to introduce randomness. Particularly within ecology, ABMs are also called individual-based models (IBMs),

个体为本模型模型是一类计算模型，用于模拟自治主体(个人或集体实体，如组织或团体)的行为和相互作用，以评估它们对整个系统的影响。它结合了博弈论、复杂系统、涌现、计算社会学、多智能体系统和进化规划等要素。蒙特卡罗方法用于引入随机性。特别是在生态学中，基于个体的模型也被称为基于个体的模型,


Agent-based models are a kind of microscale model[3] that simulate the simultaneous operations and interactions of multiple agents in an attempt to re-create and predict the appearance of complex phenomena. The process is one of emergence, which some express as "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". In other words, higher-level system properties emerge from the interactions of lower-level subsystems. Or, macro-scale state changes emerge from micro-scale agent behaviors. Or, simple behaviors (meaning rules followed by agents) generate complex behaviors (meaning state changes at the whole system level).

Agent-based models are a kind of microscale model The journal Nature also encouraged agent-based modeling with an editorial that suggested ABMs can do a better job of representing financial markets and other economic complexities than standard models The extreme memory bandwidth combined with the sheer number crunching power of multi-processor GPUs has enabled simulation of millions of agents at tens of frames per second.

基于代理的模型是一种微尺度模型《自然》杂志也鼓励基于代理的模型，该杂志的一篇社论指出，ABMs 可以比标准模型更好地表现金融市场和其他复杂的经济问题。极端的内存带宽，加上多处理器 gpu 的庞大的数字处理能力，已经能够模拟数以千万计的代理帧率。


Individual agents are typically characterized as boundedly rational, presumed to be acting in what they perceive as their own interests, such as reproduction, economic benefit, or social status,[4] using heuristics or simple decision-making rules. ABM agents may experience "learning", adaptation, and reproduction.[5]


Most agent-based models are composed of: (1) numerous agents specified at various scales (typically referred to as agent-granularity); (2) decision-making heuristics; (3) learning rules or adaptive processes; (4) an interaction topology; and (5) an environment. ABMs are typically implemented as computer simulations, either as custom software, or via ABM toolkits, and this software can be then used to test how changes in individual behaviors will affect the system's emerging overall behavior.

Since Agent-Based Modeling is more of a modeling framework than a particular piece of software or platform, it has often been used in conjunction with other modeling forms. For instance, agent-based models have also been combined with Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This provides a useful combination where the ABM serves as a process model and the GIS system can provide a model of pattern. Similarly, Social Network Analysis (SNA) tools and agent-based models are sometimes integrated, where the ABM is used to simulate the dynamics on the network while the SNA tool models and analyzes the network of interactions.

由于基于 agent 的建模更像是一个建模框架，而不是一个特定的软件或平台，因此它经常与其他建模形式结合使用。例如，基于代理的模型也与地理信息系统(GIS)相结合。这提供了一个有用的组合，其中 ABM 作为一个过程模型，而 GIS 系统可以提供一个模式模型。同样，社会网络分析(Social Network Analysis，SNA)工具和基于代理的模型有时也集成在一起，其中 ABM 用于模拟网络上的动态，而 SNA 工具用于模拟和分析交互网络。


History

The idea of agent-based modeling was developed as a relatively simple concept in the late 1940s. Since it requires computation-intensive procedures, it did not become widespread until the 1990s.

Verification and validation (V&V) of simulation models is extremely important. Verification involves making sure the implemented model matches the conceptual model, whereas validation ensures that the implemented model has some relationship to the real-world. Face validation, sensitivity analysis, calibration, and statistical validation are different aspects of validation. A discrete-event simulation framework approach for the validation of agent-based systems has been proposed. A comprehensive resource on empirical validation of agent-based models can be found here.

仿真模型的验证及确认是非常重要的。验证包括确保实现的模型与概念模型相匹配，而验证则确保实现的模型与现实世界有一定的关系。人脸验证、敏感度分析、校准和统计验证是验证的不同方面。提出了一种基于离散事件仿真的系统验证框架方法。这里可以找到关于基于主体的模型的经验验证的综合资源。


Early developments

As an example of V&V technique, consider VOMAS (virtual overlay multi-agent system), a software engineering based approach, where a virtual overlay multi-agent system is developed alongside the agent-based model. Muazi et al. also provide an example of using VOMAS for verification and validation of a forest fire simulation model.

作为 v & v 技术的一个例子，考虑一下基于软件工程的方法，VOMAS (虚拟覆盖多智能体系统) ，在个体为本模型旁边开发了一个虚拟覆盖程序。等人。还提供了一个使用 VOMAS 模拟森林火灾模拟模型的验证及确认例子。

The history of the agent-based model can be traced back to the Von Neumann machine, a theoretical machine capable of reproduction. The device von Neumann proposed would follow precisely detailed instructions to fashion a copy of itself. The concept was then built upon by von Neumann's friend Stanislaw Ulam, also a mathematician; Ulam suggested that the machine be built on paper, as a collection of cells on a grid. The idea intrigued von Neumann, who drew it up—creating the first of the devices later termed cellular automata.

Another advance was introduced by the mathematician John Conway. He constructed the well-known Game of Life. Unlike von Neumann's machine, Conway's Game of Life operated by simple rules in a virtual world in the form of a 2-dimensional checkerboard.


The Simula programming language, developed in the mid 1960s and widely implemented by the early 1970s, was the first framework for automating step-by-step agent simulations.


1970s and 1980s: the first models

One of the earliest agent-based models in concept was Thomas Schelling's segregation model,[6] which was discussed in his paper "Dynamic Models of Segregation" in 1971. Though Schelling originally used coins and graph paper rather than computers, his models embodied the basic concept of agent-based models as autonomous agents interacting in a shared environment with an observed aggregate, emergent outcome.


In the early 1980s, Robert Axelrod hosted a tournament of Prisoner's Dilemma strategies and had them interact in an agent-based manner to determine a winner. Axelrod would go on to develop many other agent-based models in the field of political science that examine phenomena from ethnocentrism to the dissemination of culture.[7]

By the late 1980s, Craig Reynolds' work on flocking models contributed to the development of some of the first biological agent-based models that contained social characteristics. He tried to model the reality of lively biological agents, known as artificial life, a term coined by Christopher Langton.


The first use of the word "agent" and a definition as it is currently used today is hard to track down. One candidate appears to be John Holland and John H. Miller's 1991 paper "Artificial Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory",[8] based on an earlier conference presentation of theirs.


At the same time, during the 1980s, social scientists, mathematicians, operations researchers, and a scattering of people from other disciplines developed Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory (CMOT). This field grew as a special interest group of The Institute of Management Sciences (TIMS) and its sister society, the Operations Research Society of America (ORSA).


1990s: expansion

The 1990s were especially notable for the expansion of ABM within the social sciences, one notable effort was the large-scale ABM, Sugarscape, developed by

Joshua M. Epstein and Robert Axtell to simulate and explore the role of social phenomena such as seasonal migrations, pollution, sexual reproduction, combat, and transmission of disease and even culture.[9] Other notable 1990s developments included Carnegie Mellon University's Kathleen Carley ABM,[10] to explore the co-evolution of social networks and culture.

During this 1990s timeframe Nigel Gilbert published the first textbook on Social Simulation: Simulation for the social scientist (1999) and established a journal from the perspective of social sciences: the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation (JASSS). Other than JASSS, agent-based models of any discipline are within scope of SpringerOpen journal Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling (CASM).[11]


Through the mid-1990s, the social sciences thread of ABM began to focus on such issues as designing effective teams, understanding the communication required for organizational effectiveness, and the behavior of social networks. CMOT—later renamed Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)—incorporated more and more agent-based modeling. Samuelson (2000) is a good brief overview of the early history,[12] and Samuelson (2005) and Samuelson and Macal (2006) trace the more recent developments.[13][14]


In the late 1990s, the merger of TIMS and ORSA to form INFORMS, and the move by INFORMS from two meetings each year to one, helped to spur the CMOT group to form a separate society, the North American Association for Computational Social and Organizational Sciences (NAACSOS). Kathleen Carley was a major contributor, especially to models of social networks, obtaining National Science Foundation funding for the annual conference and serving as the first President of NAACSOS. She was succeeded by David Sallach of the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory, and then by Michael Prietula of Emory University. At about the same time NAACSOS began, the European Social Simulation Association (ESSA) and the Pacific Asian Association for Agent-Based Approach in Social Systems Science (PAAA), counterparts of NAACSOS, were organized. As of 2013, these three organizations collaborate internationally. The First World Congress on Social Simulation was held under their joint sponsorship in Kyoto, Japan, in August 2006.[citation needed] The Second World Congress was held in the northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C., in July 2008, with George Mason University taking the lead role in local arrangements.


2000s and later

More recently, Ron Sun developed methods for basing agent-based simulation on models of human cognition, known as cognitive social simulation.[15] Bill McKelvey, Suzanne Lohmann, Dario Nardi, Dwight Read and others at UCLA have also made significant contributions in organizational behavior and decision-making. Since 2001, UCLA has arranged a conference at Lake Arrowhead, California, that has become another major gathering point for practitioners in this field.[citation needed]


Theory

Most computational modeling research describes systems in equilibrium or as moving between equilibria. Agent-based modeling, however, using simple rules, can result in different sorts of complex and interesting behavior. The three ideas central to agent-based models are agents as objects, emergence, and complexity.


Agent-based models consist of dynamically interacting rule-based agents. The systems within which they interact can create real-world-like complexity. Typically agents are

situated in space and time and reside in networks or in lattice-like neighborhoods. The location of the agents and their responsive behavior are encoded in algorithmic form in computer programs. In some cases, though not always, the agents may be considered as intelligent and purposeful. In ecological ABM (often referred to as "individual-based models" in ecology), agents may, for example, be trees in forest, and would not be considered intelligent, although they may be "purposeful" in the sense of optimizing access to a resource (such as water).

The modeling process is best described as inductive. The modeler makes those assumptions thought most relevant to the situation at hand and then watches phenomena emerge from the agents' interactions. Sometimes that result is an equilibrium. Sometimes it is an emergent pattern. Sometimes, however, it is an unintelligible mangle.


In some ways, agent-based models complement traditional analytic methods. Where analytic methods enable humans to characterize the equilibria of a system, agent-based models allow the possibility of generating those equilibria. This generative contribution may be the most mainstream of the potential benefits of agent-based modeling. Agent-based models can explain the emergence of higher-order patterns—network structures of terrorist organizations and the Internet, power-law distributions in the sizes of traffic jams, wars, and stock-market crashes, and social segregation that persists despite populations of tolerant people. Agent-based models also can be used to identify lever points, defined as moments in time in which interventions have extreme consequences, and to distinguish among types of path dependency.


Rather than focusing on stable states, many models consider a system's robustness—the ways that complex systems adapt to internal and external pressures so as to maintain their functionalities. The task of harnessing that complexity requires consideration of the agents themselves—their diversity, connectedness, and level of interactions.


Framework

Recent work on the Modeling and simulation of Complex Adaptive Systems has demonstrated the need for combining agent-based and complex network based models.[16][17][18] describe a framework consisting of four levels of developing models of complex adaptive systems described using several example multidisciplinary case studies:

  1. Complex Network Modeling Level for developing models using interaction data of various system components.
  1. Exploratory Agent-based Modeling Level for developing agent-based models for assessing the feasibility of further research. This can e.g. be useful for developing proof-of-concept models such as for funding applications without requiring an extensive learning curve for the researchers.
  1. Descriptive Agent-based Modeling (DREAM) for developing descriptions of agent-based models by means of using templates and complex network-based models. Building DREAM models allows model comparison across scientific disciplines.
  1. Validated agent-based modeling using Virtual Overlay Multiagent system (VOMAS) for the development of verified and validated models in a formal manner.

Other methods of describing agent-based models include code templates[19] and text-based methods such as the ODD (Overview, Design concepts, and Design Details) protocol.[20]


The role of the environment where agents live, both macro and micro,[21] is also becoming an important factor in agent-based modelling and simulation work. Simple environment affords simple agents, but complex environments generates diversity of behaviour.[22]


Applications

In biology

Main article: Agent-based model in biology


Agent-based modeling has been used extensively in biology, including the analysis of the spread of epidemics,[23] and the threat of biowarfare, biological applications including population dynamics,[24] stochastic gene expression,[25] plant-animal interactions,[26] vegetation ecology,[27] landscape diversity,[28] the growth and decline of ancient civilizations, evolution of ethnocentric behavior,[29] forced displacement/migration,[30] language choice dynamics,[31] cognitive modeling, and biomedical applications including modeling 3D breast tissue formation/morphogenesis,[32] the effects of ionizing radiation on mammary stem cell subpopulation dynamics,[33] inflammation,[34]

[35]

and the human immune system.[36] Agent-based models have also been used for developing decision support systems such as for breast cancer.[37] Agent-based models are increasingly being used to model pharmacological systems in early stage and pre-clinical research to aid in drug development and gain insights into biological systems that would not be possible a priori.[38] Military applications have also been evaluated.[39] Moreover, agent-based models have been recently employed to study molecular-level biological systems.[40][41][42]


In epidemiology

Agent-based models have replaced compartmental models, the usual type of epidemiological models. ABMs have been shown to be superior to compartmental models in regard to the accuracy of predictions.[43][44] Recently, ABMs have been used to inform public health (nonpharmaceutical) interventions against the spread of SARS-CoV-2.[45] Epidemiological ABMs have been criticized for simplifying and unrealistic assumptions.[46][47] Still, they can be useful in informing decisions regarding mitigation and suppression measures in cases when ABMs are accurately calibrated.[48]


In business, technology and network theory

Agent-based models have been used since the mid-1990s to solve a variety of business and technology problems. Examples of applications include marketing,[49] organizational behaviour and cognition,[50] team working,[51] supply chain optimization and logistics, modeling of consumer behavior, including word of mouth, social network effects, distributed computing, workforce management, and portfolio management. They have also been used to analyze traffic congestion.[52]


Recently, agent based modelling and simulation has been applied to various domains such as studying the impact of publication venues by researchers in the computer science domain (journals versus conferences).[53] In addition, ABMs have been used to simulate information delivery in ambient assisted environments.[54] A November 2016 article in arXiv analyzed an agent based simulation of posts spread in the Facebook online social network.[55] In the domain of peer-to-peer, ad-hoc and other self-organizing and complex networks, the usefulness of agent based modeling and simulation has been shown.[56] The use of a computer science-based formal specification framework coupled with wireless sensor networks and an agent-based simulation has recently been demonstrated.[57]


Agent based evolutionary search or algorithm is a new research topic for solving complex optimization problems.[58]


In economics and social sciences

Main articles: Agent-based computational economics and Agent-based social simulation

Prior to, and in the wake of the financial crisis, interest has grown in ABMs as possible tools for economic analysis.[59][60] ABMs do not assume the economy can achieve equilibrium and "representative agents" are replaced by agents with diverse, dynamic, and interdependent behavior including herding. ABMs take a "bottom-up" approach and can generate extremely complex and volatile simulated economies. ABMs can represent unstable systems with crashes and booms that develop out of non-linear (disproportionate) responses to proportionally small changes.[61] A July 2010 article in The Economist looked at ABMs as alternatives to DSGE models.[61] The journal Nature also encouraged agent-based modeling with an editorial that suggested ABMs can do a better job of representing financial markets and other economic complexities than standard models[62] along with an essay by J. Doyne Farmer and Duncan Foley that argued ABMs could fulfill both the desires of Keynes to represent a complex economy and of Robert Lucas to construct models based on microfoundations.模板:Sfn Farmer and Foley pointed to progress that has been made using ABMs to model parts of an economy, but argued for the creation of a very large model that incorporates low level models.模板:Sfn By modeling a complex system of analysts based on three distinct behavioral profiles – imitating, anti-imitating, and indifferent – financial markets were simulated to high accuracy. Results showed a correlation between network morphology and the stock market index.[63]


ABMs have been deployed in architecture and urban planning to evaluate design and to simulate pedestrian flow in the urban environment[64] and the examination of public policy applications to land-use.[65] There is also a growing field of socio-economic analysis of infrastructure investment impact using ABM's ability to discern systemic impacts upon a socio-economic network.[66]


Organizational ABM: agent-directed simulation

The agent-directed simulation (ADS) metaphor distinguishes between two categories, namely "Systems for Agents" and "Agents for Systems."[67] Systems for Agents (sometimes referred to as agents systems) are systems implementing agents for the use in engineering, human and social dynamics, military applications, and others. Agents for Systems are divided in two subcategories. Agent-supported systems deal with the use of agents as a support facility to enable computer assistance in problem solving or enhancing cognitive capabilities. Agent-based systems focus on the use of agents for the generation of model behavior in a system evaluation (system studies and analyses).


Category:Models of computation

类别: 计算模型

Self-driving cars

Category:Complex systems theory

范畴: 复杂系统理论

Waymo has created a multi-agent simulation environment Carcraft to test algorithms for self-driving cars.[68][69] It simulates traffic interactions between human drivers, pedestrians and automated vehicles. People's behavior is imitated by artificial agents based on data of real human behavior.

Category:Scientific modeling

类别: 科学建模


Category:Multi-agent systems

类别: 多代理系统

Implementation

Category:Methods in sociology

范畴: 社会学方法


Category:Artificial life

类别: 人工生命

Many ABM frameworks are designed for serial von-Neumann computer architectures, limiting the speed and scalability of implemented models. Since emergent behavior in large-scale ABMs is dependent of population size,[70] scalability restrictions may hinder model validation.[71] Such limitations have mainly been addressed using distributed computing, with frameworks such as Repast HPC[72] specifically dedicated to these type of implementations. While such approaches map well to cluster and supercomputer architectures, issues related to communication and synchronization,[73][74] as well as deployment complexity,[75] remain potential obstacles for their widespread adoption.

Category:Simulation

类别: 模拟


Category:Systems theory

范畴: 系统论


This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Agent-based model. Its edit history can be viewed at 基于主体模型/edithistory

  1. ↑ Grimm, Volker; Railsback, Steven F. (2005). Individual-based Modeling and Ecology. Princeton University Press. pp. 485. ISBN 978-0-691-09666-7. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Niazi, Muaz; Hussain, Amir (2011). "Agent-based Computing from Multi-agent Systems to Agent-Based Models: A Visual Survey" (PDF). Scientometrics. 89 (2): 479–499. arXiv:1708.05872. doi:10.1007/s11192-011-0468-9. S2CID 17934527. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2013.
  3. ↑ Gustafsson, Leif; Sternad, Mikael (2010). "Consistent micro, macro, and state-based population modelling". Mathematical Biosciences. 225 (2): 94–107. doi:10.1016/j.mbs.2010.02.003. PMID 20171974.
  4. ↑ "Agent-Based Models of Industrial Ecosystems". Rutgers University. October 6, 2003. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.
  5. ↑ Bonabeau, E. (May 14, 2002). "Agent-based modeling: Methods and techniques for simulating human systems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99: 7280–7. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.7280B. doi:10.1073/pnas.082080899. PMC 128598. PMID 12011407.
  6. ↑ Schelling, Thomas C. (1971). "Dynamic Models of Segregation" (PDF). Journal of Mathematical Sociology. 1 (2): 143–186. doi:10.1080/0022250x.1971.9989794.
  7. ↑ Axelrod, Robert (1997). The Complexity of Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01567-5. 
  8. ↑ Holland, J.H.; Miller, J.H. (1991). "Artificial Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory" (PDF). American Economic Review. 81 (2): 365–71. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 27, 2005.
  9. ↑ Epstein, Joshua M.; Axtell, Robert (October 11, 1996). Growing artificial societies: social science from the bottom up. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 224. ISBN 978-0-262-55025-3. https://archive.org/details/growingartificia00epst/page/224. 
  10. ↑ "Construct". Computational Analysis of Social Organizational Systems.
  11. ↑ Springer Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling Journal (CASM)
  12. ↑ Samuelson, Douglas A. (December 2000). "Designing Organizations". OR/MS Today.
  13. ↑ Samuelson, Douglas A. (February 2005). "Agents of Change". OR/MS Today.
  14. ↑ Samuelson, Douglas A.; Macal, Charles M. (August 2006). "Agent-Based Modeling Comes of Age". OR/MS Today.
  15. ↑ Sun, Ron, ed. (March 2006). Cognition and Multi-Agent Interaction: From Cognitive Modeling to Social Simulation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83964-8. https://www.cambridge.org/0521839645. 
  16. ↑ Aditya Kurve; Khashayar Kotobi; George Kesidis (2013). "An agent-based framework for performance modeling of an optimistic parallel discrete event simulator". Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling. 1: 12. doi:10.1186/2194-3206-1-12.
  17. ↑ Niazi, Muaz A. K. (June 30, 2011). "Towards A Novel Unified Framework for Developing Formal, Network and Validated Agent-Based Simulation Models of Complex Adaptive Systems". hdl:1893/3365. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) (PhD Thesis)
  18. ↑ Niazi, M.A. and Hussain, A (2012), Cognitive Agent-based Computing-I: A Unified Framework for Modeling Complex Adaptive Systems using Agent-based & Complex Network-based Methods Cognitive Agent-based Computing
  19. ↑ "Swarm code templates for model comparison". Swarm Development Group. Archived from the original on August 3, 2008.
  20. ↑ Volker Grimm; Uta Berger; Finn Bastiansen; et al. (September 15, 2006). "A standard protocol for describing individual-based and agent-based models". Ecological Modelling. 198 (1–2): 115–126. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.04.023. (ODD Paper)
  21. ↑ Ch'ng, E. (2012) Macro and Micro Environment for Diversity of Behaviour in Artificial Life Simulation, Artificial Life Session, The 6th International Conference on Soft Computing and Intelligent Systems, The 13th International Symposium on Advanced Intelligent Systems, November 20–24, 2012, Kobe, Japan. Macro and Micro Environment -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期November 13, 2013，.
  22. ↑ Simon, Herbert A. The sciences of the artificial. MIT press, 1996.
  23. ↑ Situngkir, Hokky (2004). "Epidemiology Through Cellular Automata: Case of Study Avian Influenza in Indonesia". arXiv:nlin/0403035.
  24. ↑ Caplat, Paul; Anand, Madhur; Bauch, Chris (March 10, 2008). "Symmetric competition causes population oscillations in an individual-based model of forest dynamics". Ecological Modelling. 211 (3–4): 491–500. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.10.002.
  25. ↑ Thomas, Philipp (December 2019). "Intrinsic and extrinsic noise of gene expression in lineage trees". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 474. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9..474T. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35927-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6345792. PMID 30679440.
  26. ↑ Fedriani JM, T Wiegand, D Ayllón, F Palomares, A Suárez-Esteban and V. Grimm. 2018. Assisting seed dispersers to restore old-fields: an individual-based model of the interactions among badgers, foxes, and Iberian pear trees. Journal of Applied Ecology 55: 600–611.
  27. ↑ Ch'ng, E. (2009) An Artificial Life-Based Vegetation Modelling Approach for Biodiversity Research, in Nature-Inspired informatics for Intelligent Applications and Knowledge Discovery: Implications in Business, Science and Engineering, R. Chiong, Editor. 2009, IGI Global: Hershey, PA. http://complexity.io/Publications/NII-alifeVeg-eCHNG.pdf -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期November 13, 2013，.
  28. ↑ Wirth, E.; Szabó, Gy.; Czinkóczky, A. (June 7, 2016). "Measure of Landscape Heterogeneity by Agent-Based Methodology". ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. III-8: 145–151. Bibcode:2016ISPAnIII8..145W. doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-iii-8-145-2016.
  29. ↑ Lima, Francisco W. S.; Hadzibeganovic, Tarik; Stauffer, Dietrich (2009). "Evolution of ethnocentrism on undirected and directed Barabási–Albert networks". Physica A. 388 (24): 4999–5004. arXiv:0905.2672. Bibcode:2009PhyA..388.4999L. doi:10.1016/j.physa.2009.08.029. S2CID 18233740.
  30. ↑ Edwards, Scott (June 9, 2009). The Chaos of Forced Migration: A Modeling Means to an Humanitarian End. VDM Verlag. pp. 168. ISBN 978-3-639-16516-6. 
  31. ↑ Hadzibeganovic, Tarik; Stauffer, Dietrich; Schulze, Christian (2009). "Agent-based computer simulations of language choice dynamics". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1167 (1): 221–229. Bibcode:2009NYASA1167..221H. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04507.x. PMID 19580569.
  32. ↑ Tang, Jonathan; Enderling, Heiko; Becker-Weimann, Sabine; Pham, Christopher; Polyzos, Aris; Chen, Charlie; Costes, Sylvain (2011). "Phenotypic transition maps of 3D breast acini obtained by imaging-guided agent-based modeling". Integrative Biology. 3 (4): 408–21. doi:10.1039/c0ib00092b. PMC 4009383. PMID 21373705.
  33. ↑ Tang, Jonathan; Fernando-Garcia, Ignacio; Vijayakumar, Sangeetha; Martinez-Ruis, Haydeliz; Illa-Bochaca, Irineu; Nguyen, David; Mao, Jian-Hua; Costes, Sylvain; Barcellos-Hoff, Mary Helen (2014). "Irradiation of juvenile, but not adult, mammary gland increases stem cell self-renewal and estrogen receptor negative tumors". Stem Cells. 32 (3): 649–61. doi:10.1002/stem.1533. PMID 24038768.
  34. ↑ Tang, Jonathan; Ley, Klaus; Hunt, C. Anthony (2007). "Dynamics of in silico leukocyte rolling, activation, and adhesion". BMC Systems Biology. 1 (14): 14. doi:10.1186/1752-0509-1-14. PMC 1839892. PMID 17408504.
  35. ↑ Tang, Jonathan; Hunt, C. Anthony (2010). "Identifying the rules of engagement enabling leukocyte rolling, activation, and adhesion". PLOS Computational Biology. 6 (2): e1000681. Bibcode:2010PLSCB...6E0681T. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000681. PMC 2824748. PMID 20174606.
  36. ↑ Castiglione, Filippo; Celada, Franco (2015). Immune System Modeling and Simulation. CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 274. ISBN 978-1-4665-9748-8. http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466597488. 
  37. ↑ Siddiqa, Amnah; Niazi, Muaz; Mustafa, Farah; Bokhari, Habib; Hussain, Amir; Akram, Noreen; Shaheen, Shabnum; Ahmed, Fouzia et al. (2009). "A new hybrid agent-based modeling & simulation decision support system for breast cancer data analysis". 2009 International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies. pp. 134–139. doi:10.1109/ICICT.2009.5267202. ISBN 978-1-4244-4608-7. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. http://www.cs.stir.ac.uk/~man/papers/ICICT_Cameraready_June20_09.pdf.  (Breast Cancer DSS)
  38. ↑ Butler, James; Cosgrove, Jason; Alden, Kieran; Read, Mark; Kumar, Vipin; Cucurull‐Sanchez, Lourdes; Timmis, Jon; Coles, Mark (2015). "Agent‐Based Modeling in Systems Pharmacology". CPT: Pharmacometrics & Systems Pharmacology. 4 (11): 615–629. doi:10.1002/psp4.12018. PMC 4716580. PMID 26783498.
  39. ↑ Barathy, Gnana; Yilmaz, Levent; Tolk, Andreas (March 2012). "Agent Directed Simulation for Combat Modeling and Distributed Simulation". Engineering Principles of Combat Modeling and Distributed Simulation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 669–714. doi:10.1002/9781118180310.ch27. ISBN 9781118180310. 
  40. ↑ Azimi, Mohammad; Jamali, Yousef; Mofrad, Mohammad R. K. (2011). "Accounting for Diffusion in Agent Based Models of Reaction-Diffusion Systems with Application to Cytoskeletal Diffusion". PLOS ONE. 6 (9): e25306. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625306A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025306. PMC 3179499. PMID 21966493.
  41. ↑ Azimi, Mohammad; Mofrad, Mohammad R. K. (2013). "Higher Nucleoporin-Importinβ Affinity at the Nuclear Basket Increases Nucleocytoplasmic Import". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e81741. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...881741A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081741. PMC 3840022. PMID 24282617.
  42. ↑ Azimi, Mohammad; Bulat, Evgeny; Weis, Karsten; Mofrad, Mohammad R. K. (November 5, 2014). "An agent-based model for mRNA export through the nuclear pore complex". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 25 (22): 3643–3653. doi:10.1091/mbc.E14-06-1065. PMC 4230623. PMID 25253717.
  43. ↑ Eisinger, Dirk; Thulke, Hans-Hermann (April 1, 2008). "Spatial pattern formation facilitates eradication of infectious diseases". The Journal of Applied Ecology. 45 (2): 415–423. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01439.x. ISSN 0021-8901. PMC 2326892. PMID 18784795.
  44. ↑ (in en) Agent-Based and Individual-Based Modeling. 2019-03-26. ISBN 978-0-691-19082-2. https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691190822/agent-based-and-individual-based-modeling. 
  45. ↑ Adam, David (April 2, 2020). "Special report: The simulations driving the world's response to COVID-19". Nature (in English). 580 (7803): 316–318. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01003-6.
  46. ↑ Sridhar, Devi; Majumder, Maimuna S. (April 21, 2020). "Modelling the pandemic". BMJ (in English). 369. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1567. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 32317328.
  47. ↑ Squazzoni, Flaminio; Polhill, J. Gareth; Edmonds, Bruce; Ahrweiler, Petra; Antosz, Patrycja; Scholz, Geeske; Chappin, Émile; Borit, Melania; Verhagen, Harko; Giardini, Francesca; Gilbert, Nigel (2020). "Computational Models That Matter During a Global Pandemic Outbreak: A Call to Action". Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation. 23 (2): 10. ISSN 1460-7425.
  48. ↑ Maziarz, Mariusz; Zach, Martin (2020). "Agent-based modelling for SARS-CoV-2 epidemic prediction and intervention assessment: A methodological appraisal". Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice (in English). 26 (5): 1352–1360. doi:10.1111/jep.13459. ISSN 1365-2753. PMC 7461315. PMID 32820573.
  49. ↑ Rand, William; Rust, Roland T. (2011). "Agent-based modeling in marketing: Guidelines for rigor". International Journal of Research in Marketing. 28 (3): 181–193. doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.04.002.
  50. ↑ Hughes, H. P. N.; Clegg, C. W.; Robinson, M. A.; Crowder, R. M. (2012). "Agent-based modelling and simulation: The potential contribution to organizational psychology". Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 85 (3): 487–502. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2012.02053.x.
  51. ↑ Crowder, R. M.; Robinson, M. A.; Hughes, H. P. N.; Sim, Y. W. (2012). "The development of an agent-based modeling framework for simulating engineering team work". IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans. 42 (6): 1425–1439. doi:10.1109/TSMCA.2012.2199304. S2CID 7985332.
  52. ↑ "Application of Agent Technology to Traffic Simulation". United States Department of Transportation. May 15, 2007. Archived from the original on January 1, 2011. Retrieved October 31, 2007.
  53. ↑ Niazi, M.; Baig, A. R.; Hussain, A.; Bhatti, S. (2008). Mason, S.; Hill, R.; Mönch, L.; Rose, O.; Jefferson, T.; Fowler, J. W. (eds.). "Simulation of the Research Process" (PDF). Proceedings of the 40th Conference on Winter Simulation (Miami, Florida, December 7 – 10, 2008): 1326–1334. doi:10.1109/WSC.2008.4736206. hdl:1893/3203. ISBN 978-1-4244-2707-9. S2CID 6597668.
  54. ↑ Niazi, Muaz A. (2008). "Self-Organized Customized Content Delivery Architecture for Ambient Assisted Environments" (PDF). UPGRADE '08: Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Use of P2P, Grid and Agents for the Development of Content Networks: 45–54. doi:10.1145/1384209.1384218. ISBN 9781605581552. S2CID 16916130. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 14, 2011.
  55. ↑ Nasrinpour, Hamid Reza; Friesen, Marcia R.; McLeod, Robert D. (November 22, 2016). "An Agent-Based Model of Message Propagation in the Facebook Electronic Social Network". arXiv:1611.07454 [cs.SI].
  56. ↑ Niazi, Muaz; Hussain, Amir (March 2009). "Agent based Tools for Modeling and Simulation of Self-Organization in Peer-to-Peer, Ad-Hoc and other Complex Networks" (PDF). IEEE Communications Magazine. 47 (3): 163–173. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2009.4804403. hdl:1893/2423. S2CID 23449913. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 4, 2010.
  57. ↑ Niazi, Muaz; Hussain, Amir (2011). "A Novel Agent-Based Simulation Framework for Sensing in Complex Adaptive Environments" (PDF). IEEE Sensors Journal. 11 (2): 404–412. arXiv:1708.05875. Bibcode:2011ISenJ..11..404N. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2068044. S2CID 15367419. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 25, 2011.
  58. ↑ Sarker, R. A.; Ray, T. (2010). "Agent Based Evolutionary Approach: An Introduction". Agent-Based Evolutionary Search. Adaptation, Learning, and Optimization. 5. pp. 1. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13425-8_1. ISBN 978-3-642-13424-1. 
  59. ↑ Page, Scott E. (2008). Agent-Based Models (2 ed.). http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_A000218&edition=current&q=agent-based%20computational%20modeling&topicid=&result_number=1. 
  60. ↑ Testfatsion, Leigh; Judd, Kenneth, eds. (May 2006). Handbook of Computational Economics. 2. Elsevier. pp. 904. ISBN 978-0-444-51253-6. http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/660847/description#description.  (Chapter preview)
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Agents of change". The Economist. July 22, 2010. Retrieved February 16, 2011.
  62. ↑ "A model approach". Nature. 460 (7256): 667. August 6, 2009. Bibcode:2009Natur.460Q.667.. doi:10.1038/460667a. PMID 19661863.
  63. ↑ Stefan, F., & Atman, A. (2015). Is there any connection between the network morphology and the fluctuations of the stock market index? Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, (419), 630-641.
  64. ↑ Aschwanden, G.D.P.A; Wullschleger, Tobias; Müller, Hanspeter; Schmitt, Gerhard (2009). "Evaluation of 3D city models using automatic placed urban agents". Automation in Construction. 22: 81–89. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2011.07.001.
  65. ↑ Brown, Daniel G.; Page, Scott E.; Zellner, Moira; Rand, William (2005). "Path dependence and the validation of agent‐based spatial models of land use". International Journal of Geographic Informations Science. 19 (2): 153–174. doi:10.1080/13658810410001713399.
  66. ↑ 模板:Cite report
  67. ↑ 模板:Cite web
  68. ↑ 模板:Cite news
  69. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  70. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  71. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  72. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  73. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  74. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
  75. ↑ 模板:Cite journal
取自“https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=基于主体模型&oldid=16883”