盖亚假说

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The study of planetary habitability is partly based upon extrapolation from knowledge of the Earth's conditions, as the Earth is the only planet currently known to harbour life (The Blue Marble, 1972 Apollo 17 photograph)

The study of planetary habitability is partly based upon extrapolation from knowledge of the Earth's conditions, as the Earth is the only planet currently known to harbour life (The Blue Marble, 1972 Apollo 17 photograph)

对行星适居性星球的研究部分是基于[地球的条件，因为地球是目前已知唯一存在生命的行星]的知识推断


The Gaia hypothesis 模板:IPAc-en, also known as the Gaia theory or the Gaia principle, proposes that living organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic and self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet.

The Gaia hypothesis , also known as the Gaia theory or the Gaia principle, proposes that living organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic and self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet.

盖亚假说(又称盖亚理论或盖亚原理)提出，生物体与地球上的无机环境相互作用，形成一个协同和自我调节的复杂系统，有助于维持和延续地球上的生命条件。


The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock[1] and co-developed by the microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s.[2] Lovelock named the idea after Gaia, the primordial goddess who personified the Earth in Greek mythology. In 2006, the Geological Society of London awarded Lovelock the Wollaston Medal in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis.[3]

The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock and co-developed by the microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s. and biogeochemical processes. An example is how the activity of photosynthetic bacteria during Precambrian times completely modified the Earth atmosphere to turn it aerobic, and thus supports the evolution of life (in particular eukaryotic life).

这一假说是由化学家詹姆斯 · 洛夫洛克提出的，并由微生物学家林恩 · 马古利斯在20世纪70年代共同提出的。和生物地球化学过程。例如，前寒武纪时期光合细菌的活动如何完全改变了地球大气层，使其转化为需氧生物，从而支持生命的进化(特别是真核生命)。


Topics related to the hypothesis include how the biosphere and the evolution of organisms affect the stability of global temperature, salinity of seawater, atmospheric oxygen levels, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth.

Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia hypothesis have become better known to the Western scientific community. These scientists include Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky (1847–1918), Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945), and Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886–1963).

由于二十世纪俄罗斯与世界其他国家之间存在着障碍，直到最近，引入盖亚假说概念重叠的早期俄罗斯科学家才为西方科学界所熟知。这些科学家包括 Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921)(尽管他的大部分职业生涯都在俄罗斯以外的地方度过) ，Vasil’ evich Rizpolozhensky (1847-1918) ，复杂系统(1863-1945)和 Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886-1963)。


The Gaia hypothesis was initially criticized for being teleological and against the principles of natural selection, but later refinements aligned the Gaia hypothesis with ideas from fields such as Earth system science, biogeochemistry and systems ecology.[4][5][6] Lovelock also once described the "geophysiology" of the Earth.[7]模板:Explain Even so, the Gaia hypothesis continues to attract criticism, and today many scientists consider it to be only weakly supported by, or at odds with, the available evidence.[8][9][10]

Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected emergent property or entelechy of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one at the end of the Archaean and the beginning of the Proterozoic periods.

生物学家和地球科学家通常将稳定一个时期特征的因素视为系统的无向突现属性或纠缠因素; 例如，当每个个别物种追求自身利益时，它们的联合作用可能对环境变化产生抵消作用。反对这一观点的人有时提到一些事件的例子，这些事件导致了戏剧性的变化，而不是稳定的平衡，例如地球大气层在太古代末期和元古代初期从还原环境转变为富氧环境。


Overview

Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the coordination of living organisms and maintain those conditions through homeostasis. In some versions of Gaia philosophy, all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the coevolving diversity of living organisms.

这个假说的不那么被接受的版本声称，生物圈的变化是通过生物体之间的协调来实现的，并通过内环境平衡来维持这些条件。在盖亚哲学的某些版本中，所有的生命形式都被认为是被称为盖亚的单个活着的行星的一部分。按照这种观点，大气层、海洋和陆地地壳将是盖亚通过共同进化的生物多样性进行干预的结果。

Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms co-evolve with their environment: that is, they "influence their abiotic environment, and that environment in turn influences the biota by Darwinian process". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early thermo-acido-philic and methanogenic bacteria towards the oxygen-enriched atmosphere today that supports more complex life.


The Gaia hypothesis was an influence on the deep ecology movement. This, he suggests tended to screen out ultraviolet until the formation of the ozone screen, maintaining a degree of homeostasis. However, the Snowball Earth

盖亚假说对深层生态学运动产生了影响。他建议，在臭氧屏障形成之前，人们倾向于屏蔽紫外线，从而保持一定程度的体内平衡。然而，雪球地球呢

A reduced version of the hypothesis has been called "influential Gaia"[11] in "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?" by Andrei G. Lapenis, which states the biota influence certain aspects of the abiotic world, e.g. temperature and atmosphere. This is not the work of an individual but a collective of Russian scientific research that was combined into this peer reviewed publication. It states the coevolution of life and the environment through “micro-forces”[11] and biogeochemical processes. An example is how the activity of photosynthetic bacteria during Precambrian times completely modified the Earth atmosphere to turn it aerobic, and thus supports the evolution of life (in particular eukaryotic life).


In the biogeochemical processes of Earth, sources and sinks are the movement of elements. The composition of salt ions within our oceans and seas is: sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl−), sulfate (SO42−), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+) and potassium (K+). The elements that comprise salinity do not readily change and are a conservative property of seawater. There are many mechanisms that change salinity from a particulate form to a dissolved form and back. The known sources of sodium i.e. salts are when weathering, erosion, and dissolution of rocks are transported into rivers and deposited into the oceans.

在地球生物地球化学过程中，元素的运动是源和汇。海洋中盐离子的组成为: 钠(Na < sup > + )、氯(Cl < sup >-)、硫酸盐(SO < sub > 4 < sup > 2 )、镁(Mg < sup > 2 + )、钙(Ca < sup > 2 + )和钾(k < sup > + )。组成盐度的元素不易改变，是海水的保守特性。有许多机制可以将盐度从颗粒状转变为溶解状，然后再转变回来。已知钠的来源，即。盐类是指风化、侵蚀和岩石溶解后进入河流并沉积到海洋中的过程。

Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia hypothesis have become better known to the Western scientific community.[11] These scientists include Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky (1847–1918), Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945), and Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886–1963).


The Mediterranean Sea as being Gaia's kidney is found (here) by Kenneth J. Hsue, a correspondence author in 2001. The "desiccation" of the Mediterranean is the evidence of a functioning kidney. Earlier "kidney functions" were performed during the "deposition of the Cretaceous (South Atlantic), Jurassic (Gulf of Mexico), Permo-Triassic (Europe), Devonian (Canada), Cambrian/Precambrian (Gondwana) saline giants." Golding later made reference to Gaia in his Nobel prize acceptance speech.

2001年，通信作家 Kenneth j. Hsue 发现了地中海是盖亚的肾脏([ http://scimar.icm.csic.es/scimar/index.php/secid/6/idart/209/])。地中海的“干涸”是肾功能正常的证据。早期的“肾功能”在“白垩纪(南大西洋)、侏罗纪(墨西哥湾)、二叠纪-三叠纪(欧洲)、泥盆纪(加拿大)、寒武纪/前寒武纪(冈瓦纳)盐碱巨型生物的沉积期间进行。”戈尔丁后来在诺贝尔获奖感言中提到了盖亚。

Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected emergent property or entelechy of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one at the end of the Archaean and the beginning of the Proterozoic periods.


In the eighteenth century, as geology consolidated as a modern science, James Hutton maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked. In the twentieth century, Vladimir Vernadsky formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian geochemist and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences. followed by a popularizing 1979 book Gaia: A new look at life on Earth. An article in the New Scientist of February 6, 1975,

在18世纪，随着地质学作为一门现代科学得到巩固，詹姆斯 · 赫顿认为地质学和生物学过程是相互联系的。在20世纪，复杂系统提出了一个关于地球发展的理论，这个理论现在已经成为生态学的基础之一。沃尔纳德斯基是乌克兰的地球化学家，也是最早认识到地球大气中的氧气、氮气和二氧化碳来自生物过程的科学家之一。在20世纪20年代，他发表了一些著作，认为生物体可以像任何物理力量一样重塑地球。沃尔纳德斯基是环境科学科学基础的先驱。随后在1979年出版了一本广受欢迎的书《盖亚: 地球上生命的新面貌》。1975年2月6日《新科学家》杂志上的一篇文章,

Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the coordination of living organisms and maintain those conditions through homeostasis. In some versions of Gaia philosophy, all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the coevolving diversity of living organisms.


The Gaia hypothesis was an influence on the deep ecology movement.[12]

In 1985, the first public symposium on the Gaia hypothesis, Is The Earth A Living Organism? was held at University of Massachusetts Amherst, August 1–6. was held in San Diego, California on March 7, 1988.

1985年，第一次关于盖亚假说的公开研讨会，地球是一个活的有机体吗？于8月1日至6日在马萨诸塞州立大学艾莫斯特分校举行。1988年3月7日在加利福尼亚州圣地亚哥举行。


Details

During the "philosophical foundations" session of the conference, David Abram spoke on the influence of metaphor in science, and of the Gaia hypothesis as offering a new and potentially game-changing metaphorics, while James Kirchner criticised the Gaia hypothesis for its imprecision. Kirchner claimed that Lovelock and Margulis had not presented one Gaia hypothesis, but four -

在会议的“哲学基础”部分，大卫•阿布拉姆(David Abram)谈到了隐喻在科学中的影响，以及盖亚假说(Gaia hypothesis)提供了一种新的、可能改变游戏规则的隐喻，而詹姆斯•基什内尔(James Kirchner)则批评盖亚假说不够精确。基什内尔声称洛夫洛克和马古利斯并没有提出一个盖亚假说，而是提出了四个

The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating complex system involving the biosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrospheres and the pedosphere, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life.[13]


Gaia evolves through a cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.[14]


The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of biogeochemistry, and it is being investigated also in other fields like Earth system science. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them.[15]


Regulation of global surface temperature

Of Homeostatic Gaia, Kirchner recognised two alternatives. "Weak Gaia" asserted that life tends to make the environment stable for the flourishing of all life. "Strong Gaia" according to Kirchner, asserted that life tends to make the environment stable, to enable the flourishing of all life. Strong Gaia, Kirchner claimed, was untestable and therefore not scientific. Lovelock said that the Daisyworld model "demonstrates that self-regulation of the global environment can emerge from competition amongst types of life altering their local environment in different ways". the Gaia hypothesis was interpreted as a neo-Pagan religion. Many scientists in particular also criticised the approach taken in his popular book Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth for being teleological—a belief that things are purposeful and aimed towards a goal. Responding to this critique in 1990, Lovelock stated, "Nowhere in our writings do we express the idea that planetary self-regulation is purposeful, or involves foresight or planning by the biota".

关于内部稳定盖亚，基什内尔认可了两种选择。“弱盖亚”声称，生命往往使环境稳定，以便所有生命的繁荣。“强壮的盖亚”根据基什内尔，声称生命往往使环境稳定，使所有的生命繁荣。基什内尔声称，强大的盖亚是不可测试的，因此不科学。洛夫洛克表示，“雏菊世界”模型“表明，全球环境的自我调节，可以通过不同生活类型之间的竞争，以不同的方式改变当地环境”。盖亚假说被解释为一种新异教信仰。许多科学家尤其批评了他的畅销书《盖亚，地球上生命的新面貌》中所采取的方法，认为它是目的论的ーー相信事物是有目的的，并且朝着一个目标前进。洛夫洛克在1990年回应这一批评时说: ”在我们的著作中，我们从未表达过这样的观点，即行星的自我调节是有目的的，或者涉及生物群的远见或规划”。

Rob Rohde's palaeotemperature graphs
See also: Paleoclimatology

Stephen Jay Gould criticised Gaia as being "a metaphor, not a mechanism."

史蒂芬·古尔德批评盖亚是“一个隐喻，而不是一种机制。”

Since life started on Earth, the energy provided by the Sun has increased by 25% to 30%;[16] however, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within the levels of habitability, reaching quite regular low and high margins. Lovelock has also hypothesised that methanogens produced elevated levels of methane in the early atmosphere, giving a view similar to that found in petrochemical smog, similar in some respects to the atmosphere on Titan.[7] This, he suggests tended to screen out ultraviolet until the formation of the ozone screen, maintaining a degree of homeostasis. However, the Snowball Earth[17] research has suggested that "oxygen shocks" and reduced methane levels led, during the Huronian, Sturtian and Marinoan/Varanger Ice Ages, to a world that very nearly became a solid "snowball". These epochs are evidence against the ability of the pre Phanerozoic biosphere to fully self-regulate.


Processing of the greenhouse gas CO2, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability.

Lovelock has suggested that global biological feedback mechanisms could evolve by natural selection, stating that organisms that improve their environment for their survival do better than those that damage their environment. However, in the early 1980s, W. Ford Doolittle and Richard Dawkins separately argued against this aspect of Gaia. Doolittle argued that nothing in the genome of individual organisms could provide the feedback mechanisms proposed by Lovelock, and therefore the Gaia hypothesis proposed no plausible mechanism and was unscientific. Dawkins meanwhile stated that for organisms to act in concert would require foresight and planning, which is contrary to the current scientific understanding of evolution. Like Doolittle, he also rejected the possibility that feedback loops could stabilize the system.

洛夫洛克认为，全球生物反馈机制可以通过自然选择进化，他指出，为了生存而改善环境的有机体比那些破坏环境的有机体做得更好。然而，在20世纪80年代早期，w · 福特 · 杜利特和理查德 · 道金斯分别反对盖亚的这一方面。杜利特认为，单个生物体的基因组中没有任何东西可以提供洛夫洛克提出的反馈机制，因此盖亚假说没有提出任何可信的机制，也不科学。道金斯同时指出，有机体协同行动需要预见性和计划性，这与当前对进化的科学理解相悖。和 Doolittle 一样，他也否认反馈回路可以稳定系统的可能性。


The CLAW hypothesis, inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth's climate.[18] The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing, and that these responses lead to a negative feedback loop that acts to stabilise the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere.

Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist who collaborated with Lovelock in supporting the Gaia hypothesis, argued in 1999, that "Darwin's grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete. In accentuating the direct competition between individuals for resources as the primary selection mechanism, Darwin (and especially his followers) created the impression that the environment was simply a static arena". She wrote that the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in homeostasis, but those set points change with time. Several recent books have criticised the Gaia hypothesis, expressing views ranging from "... the Gaia hypothesis lacks unambiguous observational support and has significant theoretical difficulties" to "The Gaia hypothesis is supported neither by evolutionary theory nor by the empirical evidence of the geological record". initially suggested as a potential example of direct Gaian feedback, has subsequently been found to be less credible as understanding of cloud condensation nuclei has improved. In 2009 the Medea hypothesis was proposed: that life has highly detrimental (biocidal) impacts on planetary conditions, in direct opposition to the Gaia hypothesis.

与洛夫洛克合作支持盖亚假说的微生物学家林恩 · 马古利斯(Lynn Margulis)在1999年提出，“达尔文的宏伟构想并没有错，只是不完整。为了强调个体之间对资源的直接竞争是主要的选择机制，达尔文(特别是他的追随者)给人的印象是，环境只是一个静态的竞技场”。她写道，地球大气层、水圈和岩石圈的组成是围绕“设定点”进行调节的，就像在内稳态中那样，但这些设定点随时间而变化。最近的几本书批评了盖亚假说，表达了从... ... 盖亚假说缺乏明确的观测支持，并有重大的理论困难”到“盖亚假说既没有进化论的支持，也没有地质记录的经验证明”的观点。最初的建议是作为直接盖亚反馈的一个潜在例子，但随着人们对云凝结核的理解有所改善，后来发现这个建议并不那么可信。2009年，美狄亚假说被提出: 生命对行星环境具有高度有害(生物灭绝)的影响，直接反对盖亚假说。


Currently the increase in human population and the environmental impact of their activities, such as the multiplication of greenhouse gases may cause negative feedbacks in the environment to become positive feedback. Lovelock has stated that this could bring an extremely accelerated global warming,[19] but he has since stated the effects will likely occur more slowly.[20]

In a 2013 book-length evaluation of the Gaia hypothesis considering modern evidence from across the various relevant disciplines, Toby Tyrrell concluded that: "I believe Gaia is a dead end. Its study has, however, generated many new and thought provoking questions. While rejecting Gaia, we can at the same time appreciate Lovelock's originality and breadth of vision, and recognise that his audacious concept has helped to stimulate many new ideas about the Earth, and to champion a holistic approach to studying it". Elsewhere he presents his conclusion "The Gaia hypothesis is not an accurate picture of how our world works". This statement needs to be understood as referring to the "strong" and "moderate" forms of Gaia—that the biota obeys a principle that works to make Earth optimal (strength 5) or favourable for life (strength 4) or that it works as a homeostatic mechanism (strength 3). The latter is the "weakest" form of Gaia that Lovelock has advocated. Tyrrell rejects it. However, he finds that the two weaker forms of Gaia—Coeveolutionary Gaia and Influential Gaia, which assert that there are close links between the evolution of life and the environment and that biology affects the physical and chemical environment—are both credible, but that it is not useful to use the term "Gaia" in this sense and that those two forms were already accepted and explained by the processes of natural selection and adaptation.

在2013年对盖亚假说的一本书长度的评估中，考虑了来自各个相关学科的现代证据，托比 · 泰瑞尔总结道: “我认为盖亚是一条死胡同。然而，它的研究产生了许多新的和发人深省的问题。在拒绝盖亚的同时，我们可以欣赏洛夫洛克的原创性和视野的宽广，并认识到他的大胆概念有助于激发许多关于地球的新想法，并倡导一种研究地球的整体方法”。在其他地方，他提出了自己的结论: “盖亚假说并不能准确描述我们的世界是如何运作的”。这种说法需要被理解为是指盖亚的“强”和“中等”形式ーー生物群遵循的原则是使地球成为最佳(强度5)或有利于生命(强度4) ，或者是作为一种恒定机制(强度3)。后者是洛夫洛克所提倡的盖亚的“最弱”形式。泰瑞尔拒绝了。然而，他发现两种较弱的盖亚形式—— coeveerifit 盖亚和 Influential 盖亚，这两种形式断言生命的进化与环境之间存在密切的联系，而且生物学影响物理和化学环境，这两种形式都是可信的，但是在这个意义上使用“盖亚”一词是没有用的，这两种形式已经被接受，并且通过自然选择和适应过程得到了解释。


Daisyworld simulations

Plots from a standard black and white Daisyworld simulation
Main article: Daisyworld

In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic group selection and cooperation between organisms, James Lovelock and Andrew Watson developed a mathematical model, Daisyworld, in which ecological competition underpinned planetary temperature regulation.[21]


Daisyworld examines the energy budget of a planet populated by two different types of plants, black daisies and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the albedo of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet. The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature. As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal.


Lovelock and Watson showed that, over a limited range of conditions, this negative feedback due to competition can stabilize the planet's temperature at a value which supports life, if the energy output of the Sun changes, while a planet without life would show wide temperature swings. The percentage of white and black daisies will continually change to keep the temperature at the value at which the plants' reproductive rates are equal, allowing both life forms to thrive.


It has been suggested that the results were predictable because Lovelock and Watson selected examples that produced the responses they desired.[22]


Regulation of oceanic salinity

Ocean salinity has been constant at about 3.5% for a very long time.[23] Salinity stability in oceanic environments is important as most cells require a rather constant salinity and do not generally tolerate values above 5%. The constant ocean salinity was a long-standing mystery, because no process counterbalancing the salt influx from rivers was known. Recently it was suggested[24] that salinity may also be strongly influenced by seawater circulation through hot basaltic rocks, and emerging as hot water vents on mid-ocean ridges. However, the composition of seawater is far from equilibrium, and it is difficult to explain this fact without the influence of organic processes. One suggested explanation lies in the formation of salt plains throughout Earth's history. It is hypothesized that these are created by bacterial colonies that fix ions and heavy metals during their life processes.[23]


In the biogeochemical processes of Earth, sources and sinks are the movement of elements. The composition of salt ions within our oceans and seas is: sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl−), sulfate (SO42−), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+) and potassium (K+). The elements that comprise salinity do not readily change and are a conservative property of seawater.[23] There are many mechanisms that change salinity from a particulate form to a dissolved form and back. The known sources of sodium i.e. salts are when weathering, erosion, and dissolution of rocks are transported into rivers and deposited into the oceans.


The Mediterranean Sea as being Gaia's kidney is found (here) by Kenneth J. Hsue, a correspondence author in 2001. The "desiccation" of the Mediterranean is the evidence of a functioning kidney. Earlier "kidney functions" were performed during the "deposition of the Cretaceous (South Atlantic), Jurassic (Gulf of Mexico), Permo-Triassic (Europe), Devonian (Canada), Cambrian/Precambrian (Gondwana) saline giants."[25]


Regulation of oxygen in the atmosphere

Levels of gases in the atmosphere in 420,000 years of ice core data from Vostok, Antarctica research station. Current period is at the left.
See also: Geological history of oxygen


The Gaia hypothesis states that the Earth's atmospheric composition is kept at a dynamically steady state by the presence of life.[26] The atmospheric composition provides the conditions that contemporary life has adapted to. All the atmospheric gases other than noble gases present in the atmosphere are either made by organisms or processed by them.


The stability of the atmosphere in Earth is not a consequence of chemical equilibrium. Oxygen is a reactive compound, and should eventually combine with gases and minerals of the Earth's atmosphere and crust. Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event.[27] Since the start of the Cambrian period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume.[28] Traces of methane (at an amount of 100,000 tonnes produced per year)[29] should not exist, as methane is combustible in an oxygen atmosphere.


Dry air in the atmosphere of Earth contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases including methane. Lovelock originally speculated that concentrations of oxygen above about 25% would increase the frequency of wildfires and conflagration of forests. Recent work on the findings of fire-caused charcoal in Carboniferous and Cretaceous coal measures, in geologic periods when O2 did exceed 25%, has supported Lovelock's contention.[citation needed]


Processing of CO2

See also: Carbon cycle

Gaia scientists see the participation of living organisms in the carbon cycle as one of the complex processes that maintain conditions suitable for life. The only significant natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is volcanic activity, while the only significant removal is through the precipitation of carbonate rocks.[30] Carbon precipitation, solution and fixation are influenced by the bacteria and plant roots in soils, where they improve gaseous circulation, or in coral reefs, where calcium carbonate is deposited as a solid on the sea floor. Calcium carbonate is used by living organisms to manufacture carbonaceous tests and shells. Once dead, the living organisms' shells fall to the bottom of the oceans where they generate deposits of chalk and limestone.


Category:Cybernetics

类别: 控制论

One of these organisms is Emiliania huxleyi, an abundant coccolithophore algae which also has a role in the formation of clouds.[31] CO2 excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO2 locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitations necessary for terrestrial plants.[citation needed] Lately the atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean algal blooms are also increasing.[32]

Category:Ecological theories

范畴: 生态学理论


Category:Superorganisms

类别: 超级有机体

Lichen and other organisms accelerate the weathering of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO2 levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO2 by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere.

Category:Climate change feedbacks

类别: 气候变化反馈


Category:1965 introductions

类别: 1965年引言

History

Category:Biogeochemistry

类别: 生物地球化学


Category:Earth

类别: 地球

Precedents

Category:Biological hypotheses

类别: 生物学假说

Earthrise taken from Apollo 8 on December 24, 1968

Category:Astronomical hypotheses

类别: 天文学假设

The idea of the Earth as an integrated whole, a living being, has a long tradition. The mythical Gaia was the primal Greek goddess personifying the Earth, the Greek version of "Mother Nature" (from Ge = Earth, and Aia =

Category:Meteorological hypotheses

类别: 气象假说


This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Gaia hypothesis. Its edit history can be viewed at 盖亚假说/edithistory

  1. ↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为J1972的引用提供文字
  2. ↑ Lovelock, J.E.; Margulis, L. (1974). "Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis". Tellus. Series A. Stockholm: International Meteorological Institute. 26 (1–2): 2–10. Bibcode:1974Tell...26....2L. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x. ISSN 1600-0870. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  3. ↑ "Wollaston Award Lovelock". Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  4. ↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Turney, Jon 2003的引用提供文字
  5. ↑ Schwartzman, David (2002). Life, Temperature, and the Earth: The Self-Organizing Biosphere. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10213-1. 
  6. ↑ Gribbin, John (1990), "Hothouse earth: The greenhouse effect and Gaia" (Weidenfeld & Nicolson)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Lovelock, James, (1995) "The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth" (W.W.Norton & Co)
  8. ↑ Kirchner, James W. (2002), "Toward a future for Gaia theory", Climatic Change, 52 (4): 391–408, doi:10.1023/a:1014237331082
  9. ↑ Volk, Tyler (2002), "The Gaia hypothesis: fact, theory, and wishful thinking", Climatic Change, 52 (4): 423–430, doi:10.1023/a:1014218227825
  10. ↑ Beerling, David (2007). The Emerald Planet: How plants changed Earth's history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280602-4. http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780192806024.do. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Lapenis, Andrei G. (2002). "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?". The Professional Geographer. 54 (3): 379–391. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.00337 – via [Peer Reviewed Journal].
  12. ↑ David Landis Barnhill, Roger S. Gottlieb (eds.), Deep Ecology and World Religions: New Essays on Sacred Ground, SUNY Press, 2010, p. 32.
  13. ↑ Lovelock, James. The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255.
  14. ↑ Kleidon, Axel. How does the earth system generate and maintain thermodynamic disequilibrium and what does it imply for the future of the planet?. Article submitted to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on Thu, 10 Mar 2011
  15. ↑ Lovelock, James. The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, 2009, p. 179.
  16. ↑ Owen, T.; Cess, R.D.; Ramanathan, V. (1979). "Earth: An enhanced carbon dioxide greenhouse to compensate for reduced solar luminosity". Nature. 277 (5698): 640–2. Bibcode:1979Natur.277..640O. doi:10.1038/277640a0. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  17. ↑ Hoffman, P.F. 2001. Snowball Earth theory
  18. ↑ Charlson, R. J., Lovelock, J. E, Andreae, M. O. and Warren, S. G. (1987). "Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate". Nature. 326 (6114): 655–661. Bibcode:1987Natur.326..655C. doi:10.1038/326655a0. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ↑ Lovelock, James. The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, 2009,
  20. ↑ Lovelock J., NBC News. Link Published 23 April 2012, accessed 22 August 2012. -{zh-cn:互联网档案馆; zh-tw:網際網路檔案館; zh-hk:互聯網檔案館;}-的存檔，存档日期13 September 2012.
  21. ↑ Watson, A.J.; Lovelock, J.E (1983). "Biological homeostasis of the global environment: the parable of Daisyworld". Tellus. 35B (4): 286–9. Bibcode:1983TellB..35..284W. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.1983.tb00031.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  22. ↑ Kirchner, James W. (2003). "The Gaia Hypothesis: Conjectures and Refutations". Climatic Change. 58 (1–2): 21–45. doi:10.1023/A:1023494111532. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Segar, Douglas (2012). The Introduction to Ocean Sciences. http://www.reefimages.com/oceans/SegarOcean3Chap05.pdf: Library of Congress. pp. Chapter 5 3rd Edition. ISBN 978-0-9857859-0-1. 
  24. ↑ Gorham, Eville (1 January 1991). "Biogeochemistry: its origins and development". Biogeochemistry. Kluwer Academic. 13 (3): 199–239. doi:10.1007/BF00002942. ISSN 1573-515X. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  25. ↑ http://www.webviva.com, Justino Martinez. Web Viva 2007. "Scientia Marina: List of Issues". scimar.icm.csic.es (in English). Retrieved 2017-02-04. {{cite web}}: External link in |last= (help)
  26. ↑ Lovelock, James. The Vanishing Face of Gaia. Basic Books, 2009, p. 163.
  27. ↑ Anbar, A.; Duan, Y.; Lyons, T.; Arnold, G.; Kendall, B.; Creaser, R.; Kaufman, A.; Gordon, G.; Scott, C.; Garvin, J.; Buick, R. (2007). "A whiff of oxygen before the great oxidation event?". Science. 317 (5846): 1903–1906. Bibcode:2007Sci...317.1903A. doi:10.1126/science.1140325. PMID 17901330.
  28. ↑ Berner, R. A. (Sep 1999). "Atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (20): 10955–10957. Bibcode:1999PNAS...9610955B. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.20.10955. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 34224. PMID 10500106.
  29. ↑ Cicerone, R.J.; Oremland, R.S. (1988). "Biogeochemical aspects of atmospheric methane" (PDF). Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 2 (4): 299–327. Bibcode:1988GBioC...2..299C. doi:10.1029/GB002i004p00299.
  30. ↑ Karhu, J.A.; Holland, H.D. (1 October 1996). "Carbon isotopes and the rise of atmospheric oxygen". Geology. 24 (10): 867–870. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..867K. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0867:CIATRO>2.3.CO;2. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  31. ↑ Harding, Stephan (2006). Animate Earth. Chelsea Green Publishing. pp. 65. ISBN 978-1-933392-29-5. 
  32. ↑ "Interagency Report Says Harmful Algal Blooms Increasing". 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008.
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