熵和生命

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Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and the evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910, American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a theory of history based on the second law of thermodynamics and on the principle of entropy.^[1]^[2]

The 1944 book What is Life? by Nobel-laureate physicist Erwin Schrödinger stimulated further research in the field. In his book, Schrödinger originally stated that life feeds on negative entropy, or negentropy as it is sometimes called, but in a later edition corrected himself in response to complaints and stated that the true source is free energy. More recent work has restricted the discussion to Gibbs free energy because biological processes on Earth normally occur at a constant temperature and pressure, such as in the atmosphere or at the bottom of the ocean, but not across both over short periods of time for individual organisms.

In the 1944 book What is Life?, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, who in 1933 had won the Nobel Prize in Physics, theorized that life – contrary to the general tendency dictated by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase – decreases or keeps constant its entropy by feeding on negative entropy.

在1944年出版的《什么是生命？1933年获得诺贝尔物理学奖的奥地利物理学家埃尔温·薛定谔 · 马丁提出了一个理论，他认为生命-- 与热力学第二定律指示的一般趋势相反，即孤立系统的熵倾向于增加-通过吸收负熵而减少或保持其熵不变。

Ideas about the relationship between entropy and living organisms have inspired hypotheses and speculations in many contexts, including psychology, information theory, the origin of life, and the possibility of extraterrestrial life.

In 2013, Azua-Bustos and Vega argued that, disregarding the types of lifeforms that might be envisioned both on Earth and elsewhere in the Universe, all should share in common the attribute of decreasing their internal entropy at the expense of free energy obtained from their surroundings. As entropy allows the quantification of the degree of disorder in a system, any envisioned lifeform must have a higher degree of order than its immediate supporting environment. These authors showed that by using fractal mathematics analysis alone, they could readily quantify the degree of structural complexity difference (and thus entropy) of living processes as distinct entities separate from their similar abiotic surroundings. This approach may allow the future detection of unknown forms of life both in the Solar System and on recently discovered exoplanets based on nothing more than entropy differentials of complementary datasets (morphology, coloration, temperature, pH, isotopic composition, etc.).

2013年，阿苏阿-布斯托斯和维加认为，无论是在地球上还是在宇宙的其他地方，生命形式的类型都可能被设想，所有这些生命形式都应该有一个共同的特征，那就是以牺牲从周围环境中获得的自由能量为代价，来减少它们的内熵。由于熵允许量化一个系统的无序程度，任何想象的生命形式必须比它的直接支持环境有更高的有序度。这些作者表明，单独使用分形数学分析，他们可以很容易地定量的程度结构复杂性差异(因此熵)的生活过程作为不同的实体从他们相似的非生物环境分离。这种方法可能允许未来探测太阳系和最近发现的系外行星中的未知生命形式，仅仅基于互补数据集(形态、着色、温度、 pH 值、同位素组成等)的熵差。).

Early views

In 1863, Rudolf Clausius published his noted memoir On the Concentration of Rays of Heat and Light, and on the Limits of Its Action, wherein he outlined a preliminary relationship, based on his own work and that of William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), between living processes and his newly developed concept of entropy.^{[citation needed]} Building on this, one of the first to speculate on a possible thermodynamic perspective of organic evolution was the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1875, building on the works of Clausius and Kelvin, Boltzmann reasoned:

The notion of entropy as disorder has been transferred from thermodynamics to psychology by Polish psychiatrist Antoni Kępiński, who admitted being inspired by Erwin Schrödinger. In his theoretical framework devised to explain mental disorders (the information metabolism theory), the difference between living organisms and other systems was explained as the ability to maintain order. Contrary to inanimate matter, organisms maintain the particular order of their bodily structures and inner worlds which they impose onto their surroundings and forward to new generations. The life of an organism or the species ceases as soon as it loses that ability. Maintenance of that order requires continual exchange of information between the organism and its surroundings. In higher organisms, information is acquired mainly through sensory receptors and metabolised in the nervous system. The result is action – some form of motion, for example locomotion, speech, internal motion of organs, secretion of hormones, etc. The reactions of one organism become an informational signal to other organisms. Information metabolism, which allows living systems to maintain the order, is possible only if a hierarchy of value exists, as the signals coming to the organism must be structured. In humans that hierarchy has three levels, i.e. biological, emotional, and sociocultural. Kępiński explained how various mental disorders are caused by distortions of that hierarchy, and that the return to mental health is possible through its restoration.

熵作为无序的概念已经由波兰精神病学家 Antoni k pi ski 从热力学转移到心理学，他承认受到了埃尔温·薛定谔的启发。在他为解释精神障碍而设计的理论框架(信息代谢理论)中，生物体和其他系统的区别被解释为维持秩序的能力。与无生命物质相反，有机体维持着它们的身体结构和内部世界的特定秩序，这些秩序和秩序强加于它们的周围环境并传递给下一代。有机体或物种的生命一旦失去这种能力就会停止。维持这种秩序需要生物体与其周围环境之间不断地交换信息。在高等生物体中，信息主要通过感觉受体获得，并在神经系统中进行代谢。其结果是行动——某种形式的运动，例如运动、说话、器官的内部运动、激素的分泌等等。一个有机体的反应成为其他有机体的信号。信息新陈代谢允许生命系统维持秩序，只有在价值存在层次结构的情况下才有可能，因为到达生物体的信号必须是有结构的。在人类中，等级有三个层次，即。生理，情感和社会文化。解释了各种各样的精神障碍是如何被扭曲的等级制度所引起的，并且通过恢复精神健康是可能的。

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The idea was continued by Struzik, who proposed that Kępiński's information metabolism theory may be seen as an extension of Léon Brillouin's negentropy principle of information. In 2011, the notion of "psychological entropy" was reintroduced to psychologists by Hirsh et al. Similarly to Kępiński, these authors noted that uncertainty management is a critical ability for any organism. Uncertainty, arising due to the conflict between competing perceptual and behavioral affordances, is experienced subjectively as anxiety. Hirsh and his collaborators proposed that both the perceptual and behavioral domains may be conceptualized as probability distributions and that the amount of uncertainty associated with a given perceptual or behavioral experience can be quantified in terms of Claude Shannon’s entropy formula.

这个想法得到了 strutzik 的继续，他提出，k pi ski 的信息代谢理论可以看作是 l é on Brillouin 的信息负熵原理的延伸。2011年，Hirsh 等人重新向心理学家提出了“心理熵”的概念。与 kpi ski 类似，这些作者指出，不确定性管理对任何有机体来说都是一种至关重要的能力。不确定性是由于知觉和行为的负担之间的冲突而产生的，主观上被体验为焦虑。赫什和他的合作者提出，知觉和行为域可以概念化为概率分布，与给定的知觉或行为经验相关的不确定性的数量可以用克劳德香农的熵公式来量化。

In 1876, American civil engineer Richard Sears McCulloh, in his Treatise on the Mechanical Theory of Heat and its Application to the Steam-Engine, which was an early thermodynamics textbook, states, after speaking about the laws of the physical world, that "there are none that are established on a firmer basis than the two general propositions of Joule and Carnot; which constitute the fundamental laws of our subject." McCulloh then goes on to show that these two laws may be combined in a single expression as follows:

Entropy is well defined for equilibrium systems, so objections to the extension of the second law and of entropy to biological systems, especially as it pertains to its use to support or discredit the theory of evolution, have been stated. Living systems and indeed many other systems and processes in the universe operate far from equilibrium, whereas the second law succinctly states that isolated systems evolve toward thermodynamic equilibrium — the state of maximum entropy.

对于平衡系统来说，熵是一个很好的定义，因此反对将第二定律和熵扩展到生物系统，特别是因为它涉及到用来支持或否定进化理论，已经陈述了。生命系统和宇宙中的许多其他系统和过程都远离平衡状态，而第二定律简洁地指出，孤立的系统会朝着热力学平衡---- 熵最大的状态---- 演化。

[math]\displaystyle{ S = \int { dQ \over \tau } }[/math]

However, entropy is well defined much more broadly based on the probabilities of a system's states, whether or not the system is a dynamic one (for which equilibrium could be relevant). Even in those physical systems where equilibrium could be relevant, (1) living systems cannot persist in isolation, and (2) the second principle of thermodynamics does not require that free energy be transformed into entropy along the shortest path: living organisms absorb energy from sunlight or from energy-rich chemical compounds and finally return part of such energy to the environment as entropy (generally in the form of heat and low free-energy compounds such as water and carbon dioxide).

然而，熵的定义更广泛地基于系统状态的概率，不管系统是否是一个动态的系统(平衡可能是相关的)。即使在那些可能与平衡相关的物理系统中，(1)生命系统也不能孤立地存在，(2)热力学第二原理并不要求沿着最短的路径将自由能转化为熵: 生命有机体从阳光或高能化合物中吸收能量，最终将这种能量的一部分以熵的形式返回到环境中(通常是以热和水和二氧化碳等低自由能化合物的形式)。

where

[math]\displaystyle{ S = }[/math] entropy

[math]\displaystyle{ dQ = }[/math] a differential amount of heat passed into a thermodynamic system

[math]\displaystyle{ \tau = }[/math] absolute temperature

McCulloh then declares that the applications of these two laws, i.e. what are currently known as the first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics, are innumerable:

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McCulloh gives a few of what he calls the “more interesting examples” of the application of these laws in extent and utility. His first example is physiology, wherein he states that “the body of an animal, not less than a steamer, or a locomotive, is truly a heat engine, and the consumption of food in the one is precisely analogous to the burning of fuel in the other; in both, the chemical process is the same: that called combustion.” He then incorporates a discussion of Antoine Lavoisier’s theory of respiration with cycles of digestion, excretion, and perspiration, but then contradicts Lavoisier with recent findings, such as internal heat generated by friction, according to the new theory of heat, which, according to McCulloh, states that the “heat of the body generally and uniformly is diffused instead of being concentrated in the chest”. McCulloh then gives an example of the second law, where he states that friction, especially in the smaller blood vessels, must develop heat. Undoubtedly, some fraction of the heat generated by animals is produced in this way. He then asks: “but whence the expenditure of energy causing that friction, and which must be itself accounted for?"

To answer this question he turns to the mechanical theory of heat and goes on to loosely outline how the heart is what he calls a “force-pump”, which receives blood and sends it to every part of the body, as discovered by William Harvey, and which “acts like the piston of an engine and is dependent upon and consequently due to the cycle of nutrition and excretion which sustains physical or organic life.” It is likely that McCulloh modeled parts of this argument on that of the famous Carnot cycle. In conclusion, he summarizes his first and second law argument as such:

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Negative entropy

In the 1944 book What is Life?, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger, who in 1933 had won the Nobel Prize in Physics, theorized that life – contrary to the general tendency dictated by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase – decreases or keeps constant its entropy by feeding on negative entropy.^[3] The problem of organization in living systems increasing despite the second law is known as the Schrödinger paradox.^[4] In his note to Chapter 6 of What is Life?, however, Schrödinger remarks on his usage of the term negative entropy:

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This, Schrödinger argues, is what differentiates life from other forms of the organization of matter. In this direction, although life's dynamics may be argued to go against the tendency of the second law, life does not in any way conflict with or invalidate this law, because the principle that entropy can only increase or remain constant applies only to a closed system which is adiabatically isolated, meaning no heat can enter or leave, and the physical and chemical processes which make life possible do not occur in adiabatic isolation, i.e. living systems are open systems. Whenever a system can exchange either heat or matter with its environment, an entropy decrease of that system is entirely compatible with the second law.^[5]

Schrödinger asked the question: "How does the living organism avoid decay?" The obvious answer is: "By eating, drinking, breathing and (in the case of plants) assimilating." While energy from nutrients is necessary to sustain an organism's order, Schrödinger also presciently postulated the existence of other molecules equally necessary for creating the order observed in living organisms: "An organism's astonishing gift of concentrating a stream of order on itself and thus escaping the decay into atomic chaos – of drinking orderliness from a suitable environment – seems to be connected with the presence of the aperiodic solids..." We now know that this "aperiodic" crystal is DNA, and that its irregular arrangement is a form of information. "The DNA in the cell nucleus contains the master copy of the software, in duplicate. This software seems to control by specifying an algorithm, or set of instructions, for creating and maintaining the entire organism containing the cell."^[6]

Category:Thermodynamic entropy

类别: 熵

DNA and other macromolecules determine an organism's life cycle: birth, growth, maturity, decline, and death. Nutrition is necessary but not sufficient to account for growth in size, as genetics is the governing factor. At some point, virtually all organisms normally decline and die even while remaining in environments that contain sufficient nutrients to sustain life. The controlling factor must be internal and not nutrients or sunlight acting as causal exogenous variables. Organisms inherit the ability to create unique and complex biological structures; it is unlikely for those capabilities to be reinvented or to be taught to each generation. Therefore, DNA must be operative as the prime cause in this characteristic as well. Applying Boltzmann's perspective of the second law, the change of state from a more probable, less ordered, and higher entropy arrangement to one of less probability, more order, and lower entropy (as is seen in biological ordering) calls for a function like that known of DNA. DNA's apparent information-processing function provides a resolution of the Schrödinger paradox posed by life and the entropy requirement of the second law.^[7]

Category:Biological evolution

类别: 生物进化

Category:Biophysics

类别: 生物物理学

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Entropy and life. Its edit history can be viewed at 熵和生命/edithistory

↑ Adams, Henry. (1986). History of the United States of America During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (pg. 1299). Library of America.
↑ Adams, Henry. (1910). A Letter to American Teachers of History. Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and the evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910, American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a theory of history based on the second law of thermodynamics and on the principle of entropy.}} 关于热力学量熵与生命进化关系的研究始于20世纪之交。1910年，美国历史学家 Henry Adams 印刷并分发给大学图书馆和历史学教授小册子《给美国历史教师的信》，提出了一个基于热力学第二定律和熵原理的历史理论 Google Books, Scanned PDF. Washington.
↑ Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1.
↑ Schneider, Eric D.; Sagan, Dorion (2005). Into the Cool: Energy Flow Thermodynamics and Life. Chicago, United States: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 15.
↑ The common justification for this argument, for example, according to renowned chemical engineer Kenneth Denbigh in his 1955 book The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium, is that "living organisms are open to their environment and can build up at the expense of foodstuffs which they take in and degrade."

↑ Nelson, P. (2004). Biological Physics, Energy, Information, Life. W.H. Freeman and Company.

↑ Peterson, Jacob. "Understanding the Thermodynamics of Biological Order". The American Biology Teacher, 74, Number 1, January 2012, pp. 22–24.

[1] Adams, Henry. (1986). History of the United States of America During the Administration of Thomas Jefferson (pg. 1299). Library of America.

[2] Adams, Henry. (1910). A Letter to American Teachers of History. Research concerning the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and the evolution of life began around the turn of the 20th century. In 1910, American historian Henry Adams printed and distributed to university libraries and history professors the small volume A Letter to American Teachers of History proposing a theory of history based on the second law of thermodynamics and on the principle of entropy.}} 关于热力学量熵与生命进化关系的研究始于20世纪之交。1910年，美国历史学家 Henry Adams 印刷并分发给大学图书馆和历史学教授小册子《给美国历史教师的信》，提出了一个基于热力学第二定律和熵原理的历史理论 Google Books, Scanned PDF. Washington.

[3] Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is Life – the Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1.

[4] Schneider, Eric D.; Sagan, Dorion (2005). Into the Cool: Energy Flow Thermodynamics and Life. Chicago, United States: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 15.

[Denbigh-5] The common justification for this argument, for example, according to renowned chemical engineer Kenneth Denbigh in his 1955 book The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium, is that "living organisms are open to their environment and can build up at the expense of foodstuffs which they take in and degrade."

[6] Nelson, P. (2004). Biological Physics, Energy, Information, Life. W.H. Freeman and Company.
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[7] Peterson, Jacob. "Understanding the Thermodynamics of Biological Order". The American Biology Teacher, 74, Number 1, January 2012, pp. 22–24.

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熵和生命

Early views

Negative entropy

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