米勒-尤里实验

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The experiment

The experiment

实验


The Miller–Urey experiment[1] (or Miller experiment)[2] was a chemical experiment that simulated the conditions thought at the time (1952) to be present on the early Earth and tested the chemical origin of life under those conditions. The experiment at the time supported Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis that putative conditions on the primitive Earth favoured chemical reactions that synthesized more complex organic compounds from simpler inorganic precursors. Considered to be the classic experiment investigating abiogenesis, it was performed in 1952 by Stanley Miller, supervised by Harold Urey at the University of Chicago, and published the following year.[3][4][5]

The Miller–Urey experiment (or Miller experiment) was a chemical experiment that simulated the conditions thought at the time (1952) to be present on the early Earth and tested the chemical origin of life under those conditions. The experiment at the time supported Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis that putative conditions on the primitive Earth favoured chemical reactions that synthesized more complex organic compounds from simpler inorganic precursors. Considered to be the classic experiment investigating abiogenesis, it was performed in 1952 by Stanley Miller, supervised by Harold Urey at the University of Chicago, and published the following year.

Miller-Urey 实验(或称 Miller 实验)是一个化学实验，模拟当时(1952年)认为存在于早期地球上的条件，并在这些条件下测试生命的化学起源。当时的实验支持亚历山大·伊万诺维奇·奥巴林和 j。霍尔丹的假说认为，原始地球上的假定条件有利于从简单的无机前体合成更复杂的有机化合物的化学反应。1952年，斯坦利 · 米勒在芝加哥大学哈罗德 · 尤里的指导下完成了这项研究，并于次年发表。


After Miller's death in 2007, scientists examining sealed vials preserved from the original experiments were able to show that there were actually well over 20 different amino acids produced in Miller's original experiments. That is considerably more than what Miller originally reported, and more than the 20 that naturally occur in the genetic code.[6] More recent evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have had a composition different from the gas used in the Miller experiment, but prebiotic experiments continue to produce racemic mixtures of simple-to-complex compounds under varying conditions.[7]

After Miller's death in 2007, scientists examining sealed vials preserved from the original experiments were able to show that there were actually well over 20 different amino acids produced in Miller's original experiments. That is considerably more than what Miller originally reported, and more than the 20 that naturally occur in the genetic code.

2007年米勒去世后，科学家们检查了从原始实验中保存下来的密封小瓶，发现实际上米勒原始实验中产生了超过20种不同的氨基酸。这大大超过了米勒最初报道的数量，也超过了遗传密码中自然产生的20种。


Experiment

文件:Miller-Urey experiment - Work by the C3BC consortium, licensed under CC-BY-3.0.webm

Descriptive video of the experiment

实验的描述性视频

The experiment used water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen (H2). The chemicals were all sealed inside a sterile 5-liter glass flask connected to a 500 ml flask half-full of water. The water in the smaller flask was heated to induce evaporation, and the water vapour was allowed to enter the larger flask. Continuous electrical sparks were fired between the electrodes to simulate lightning in the water vapour and gaseous mixture, and then the simulated atmosphere was cooled again so that the water condensed and trickled into a U-shaped trap at the bottom of the apparatus.

The experiment used water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen (H2). The chemicals were all sealed inside a sterile 5-liter glass flask connected to a 500 ml flask half-full of water. The water in the smaller flask was heated to induce evaporation, and the water vapour was allowed to enter the larger flask. Continuous electrical sparks were fired between the electrodes to simulate lightning in the water vapour and gaseous mixture, and then the simulated atmosphere was cooled again so that the water condensed and trickled into a U-shaped trap at the bottom of the apparatus.

实验用水(h < sub > 2 o)、甲烷(CH < sub > 4 )、氨(NH < sub > 3 )和氢(h < sub > 2 )。这些化学物质全部密封在一个5升的无菌玻璃瓶里，瓶子连接着一个500毫升的半满水的瓶子。将小瓶中的水加热以使其蒸发，然后允许水蒸气进入大瓶。电极之间连续发射电火花来模拟水蒸气和气体混合物中的闪电，然后再次冷却模拟大气，使水冷凝并在仪器底部滴入 u 形陷阱。


After a day, the solution collected at the trap had turned pink in colour, and after a week of continuous operation the solution was deep red and turbid.[3] The boiling flask was then removed, and mercuric chloride was added to prevent microbial contamination. The reaction was stopped by adding barium hydroxide and sulfuric acid, and evaporated to remove impurities. Using paper chromatography, Miller identified five amino acids present in the solution: glycine, α-alanine and β-alanine were positively identified, while aspartic acid and α-aminobutyric acid (AABA) were less certain, due to the spots being faint.[3]

After a day, the solution collected at the trap had turned pink in colour, and after a week of continuous operation the solution was deep red and turbid.

一天之后，在诱捕器上收集到的溶液变成了粉红色，连续操作一周之后，溶液变成了深红色和混浊。


In a 1996 interview, Stanley Miller recollected his lifelong experiments following his original work and stated: "Just turning on the spark in a basic pre-biotic experiment will yield 11 out of 20 amino acids."[8]

The original experiment remained in 2017 under the care of Miller and Urey's former student Jeffrey Bada, a professor at the UCSD, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. , the apparatus used to conduct the experiment was on display at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.

最初的实验在2017年由 Miller 和 Urey 以前的学生 Jeffrey Bada 负责，他是加州大学圣地亚哥分校斯克里普斯海洋研究所的教授。实验仪器在丹佛自然科学博物馆展出。


The original experiment remained in 2017 under the care of Miller and Urey's former student Jeffrey Bada, a professor at the UCSD, Scripps Institution of Oceanography.[9] 模板:Asof, the apparatus used to conduct the experiment was on display at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.[10]模板:Update after


One-step reactions among the mixture components can produce hydrogen cyanide (HCN), formaldehyde (CH2O), and other active intermediate compounds (acetylene, cyanoacetylene, etc.):

混合组分之间的一步反应可以生成氰化氢、甲醛和其他活性中间体化合物(乙炔、氰乙炔等)。):

Chemistry of experiment

One-step reactions among the mixture components can produce hydrogen cyanide (HCN), formaldehyde (CH2O),[11][12] and other active intermediate compounds (acetylene, cyanoacetylene, etc.):[citation needed] 

CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen)

CO < sub > 2 & rarr; CO + [ o ](原子氧) 


CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O

CH < sub > 4 + 2[ o ] & rarr; CH < sub > 2 o + h < sub > 2 o

CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen)
CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O

CO + NH < sub > 3 & rarr; HCN + h < sub > 2 o

CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O
CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process)

CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process)
CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O
CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process)

The formaldehyde, ammonia, and HCN then react by Strecker synthesis to form amino acids and other biomolecules:

然后，甲醛、氨和 HCN 通过 Strecker 合成反应生成氨基酸和其他生物分子:


The formaldehyde, ammonia, and HCN then react by Strecker synthesis to form amino acids and other biomolecules: 

CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O

CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O



NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine)

NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine)
CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O
NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine)

Furthermore, water and formaldehyde can react, via Butlerov's reaction to produce various sugars like ribose.

此外，水和甲醛可以反应，通过巴特列罗夫的反应产生各种糖，如核糖。


Furthermore, water and formaldehyde can react, via Butlerov's reaction to produce various sugars like ribose.

The experiments showed that simple organic compounds of building blocks of proteins and other macromolecules can be formed from gases with the addition of energy.

实验表明，蛋白质和其他大分子构成的简单有机化合物可以通过加入能量的气体形成。


The experiments showed that simple organic compounds of building blocks of proteins and other macromolecules can be formed from gases with the addition of energy.


This experiment inspired many others. In 1961, Joan Oró found that the nucleotide base adenine could be made from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in a water solution. His experiment produced a large amount of adenine, the molecules of which were formed from 5 molecules of HCN.

这个实验启发了许多其他人。1961年，Joan oró 发现，在水溶液中，由氰化氢和氨制成的核苷酸碱基腺嘌呤。他的实验产生了大量的腺嘌呤，其分子由5个 HCN 分子组成。

Other experiments

Also, many amino acids are formed from HCN and ammonia under these conditions.

此外，许多氨基酸是由 HCN 和氨在这些条件下形成。

This experiment inspired many others. In 1961, Joan Oró found that the nucleotide base adenine could be made from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and ammonia in a water solution. His experiment produced a large amount of adenine, the molecules of which were formed from 5 molecules of HCN.[13]

Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.

后来进行的实验表明，其他 RNA 和 DNA 碱基可以通过模拟生命前化学在还原气氛下获得。

Also, many amino acids are formed from HCN and ammonia under these conditions.[14]

Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.[15]

There also had been similar electric discharge experiments related to the origin of life contemporaneous with Miller–Urey. An article in The New York Times (March 8, 1953:E9), titled "Looking Back Two Billion Years" describes the work of Wollman (William) M. MacNevin at The Ohio State University, before the Miller Science paper was published in May 1953. MacNevin was passing 100,000 volt sparks through methane and water vapor and produced "resinous solids" that were "too complex for analysis." The article describes other early earth experiments being done by MacNevin. It is not clear if he ever published any of these results in the primary scientific literature.

与米勒-尤雷同时期也有过类似的与生命起源有关的放电实验。《纽约时报》(The New York Times，1953年3月8日: E9)的一篇题为《回顾20亿年》(Looking Back Two Billion Years)的文章，描述了1953年5月《米勒科学》(Miller Science)论文发表之前，沃尔曼(William) m. MacNevin 在俄亥俄州立大学(Ohio State University)的工作。麦克尼文将10万伏特的火花通过甲烷和水蒸气，产生“树脂状固体” ，“太复杂，无法分析”这篇文章描述了麦克尼文正在进行的其他早期地球实验。目前尚不清楚他是否在主要科学文献中发表过这些结果。< ! ——是因为学者们已经研究过这个问题，但不知怎么搞的，还是因为维基百科的撰稿人只读了《纽约时报》的文章就不清楚? <


There also had been similar electric discharge experiments related to the origin of life contemporaneous with Miller–Urey. An article in The New York Times (March 8, 1953:E9), titled "Looking Back Two Billion Years" describes the work of Wollman (William) M. MacNevin at The Ohio State University, before the Miller Science paper was published in May 1953. MacNevin was passing 100,000 volt sparks through methane and water vapor and produced "resinous solids" that were "too complex for analysis." The article describes other early earth experiments being done by MacNevin. It is not clear if he ever published any of these results in the primary scientific literature.[16]

K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to Science on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 10, 1953. Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953. Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds.

1952年12月15日，k · a · 王尔德向《科学》杂志提交了一篇论文，之后米勒又于1953年2月10日向同一杂志提交了他的论文。王尔德的论文发表于1953年7月10日。王尔德使用的电压只有600v 对二氧化碳(CO < sub > 2 )和流动系统中的水的二元混合物。他观察到只有少量的二氧化碳减少为一氧化碳，没有其他重要的还原产物或新形成的碳化合物。


Other researchers were studying UV-photolysis of water vapor with carbon monoxide. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture.

其他研究人员正在研究水蒸气与一氧化碳的紫外光解反应。他们发现各种醇类、醛类和有机酸都是在反应混合物中合成的。

K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to Science on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 10, 1953. Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953.[17] Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds.

Other researchers were studying UV-photolysis of water vapor with carbon monoxide. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture.[18]


More recent experiments by chemists Jeffrey Bada, one of Miller's graduate students, and Jim Cleaves at Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California, San Diego were similar to those performed by Miller. However, Bada noted that in current models of early Earth conditions, carbon dioxide and nitrogen (N2) create nitrites, which destroy amino acids as fast as they form. When Bada performed the Miller-type experiment with the addition of iron and carbonate minerals, the products were rich in amino acids. This suggests the origin of significant amounts of amino acids may have occurred on Earth even with an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and nitrogen.[19]

Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear"; however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.

一些证据表明，地球原始大气层中还原分子的含量可能比 Miller-Urey 实验时所认为的要少。有大量的证据表明，40亿年前的大型火山爆发会向大气中释放二氧化碳、氮、硫化氢(h < sub > 2 s)和二氧化硫(SO < sub > 2 )。除了最初的 Miller-Urey 实验中使用的气体之外，使用这些气体的实验已经产生了更多样化的分子。该实验创造了一种外消旋体(包含 l 和 d 对映体)的混合物，此后的实验表明，“在实验室中，这两种化合物出现的可能性相等” ; 然而，在自然界中，l 氨基酸占主导地位。后来的实验证实了不成比例的 l 或 d 取向对映异构体是可能的。


Earth's early atmosphere

Originally it was thought that the primitive secondary atmosphere contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was CO2 with perhaps some CO and the nitrogen mostly N2. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO2, N2, etc. give much the same products as those containing CH4 and NH3 so long as there is no O2. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, hydroxyacids, purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been made in variants of the Miller experiment.

起初人们认为原始的二次大气主要含有氨和甲烷。但是，大气中的大部分碳可能是 CO < sub > 2 ，也可能是一些 CO 和氮大部分是 n < sub > 2 。在实际应用中，含有 CO、 CO < sub > 2 、 n < sub > 2 等的混合气体。只要没有 o < sub > 2 ，就可以给出与含 CH < sub > 4 和 NH < sub > 3 相同的产品。氢原子主要来自水蒸气。事实上，为了在原始土壤条件下生成芳香族氨基酸，必须使用较少的富氢气体混合物。大多数天然氨基酸、羟基酸、嘌呤、嘧啶和糖都是米勒实验的变体。

Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere.[20] Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear";[21] however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.[22]


More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature. One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment.

最近的研究结果可能会质疑这些结论。滑铁卢大学和科罗拉多大学博尔德分校在2005年进行的模拟表明，地球早期的大气可能含有高达40% 的氢，这意味着一个更适宜生命起源前有机分子形成的环境。氢气从地球大气层逃逸到太空的速度可能只有先前根据对高层大气温度的修正估计所认为的速度的百分之一。其中一位作者欧文 · 图恩(Owen Toon)指出: “在这种新的情况下，有机物可以在早期大气中高效生产，这将我们带回到富含有机物的海洋汤的概念... ..。我认为，这项研究使米勒和其他人的实验再次具有相关性。”使用早期地球的线粒体模型进行排气计算补充滑铁卢/科罗拉多实验的结果，重新建立了米勒-尤雷实验的重要性。

Originally it was thought that the primitive secondary atmosphere contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was CO2 with perhaps some CO and the nitrogen mostly N2. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO2, N2, etc. give much the same products as those containing CH4 and NH3 so long as there is no O2. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, hydroxyacids, purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been made in variants of the Miller experiment.[7][23]


In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas. This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.

与早期地球还原大气层的普遍观点不同，纽约伦斯勒理工学院的研究人员在43亿年前报告了氧气的可能性。他们在2011年报告了对来自地球内部(岩浆)的哈迪恩锆石的评估研究，研究表明存在类似于现代熔岩的氧气痕迹。这项研究表明，氧气在地球大气中释放的时间可能比人们通常认为的要早。

More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature.[24] One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment.[25]


In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas.[26] This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.[27]

Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed. This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.

类似 Miller-Urey 实验的条件在太阳系的其他区域也存在，常常以紫外线代替闪电作为化学反应的能源。1969年落在默奇森河附近的默奇森陨石被发现含有超过90种不同的氨基酸，其中十九种存在于地球生命中。彗星和其他太阳系外围冰冷的天体被认为含有大量复杂的碳化合物(例如塞林) ，这些碳化合物是由这些天体的暗化表面形成的。早期的地球被彗星大量撞击，可能提供了大量复杂的有机分子以及它们贡献的水和其他挥发物。这被用来推断地球以外生命的起源: 胚种说。


Extraterrestrial sources

Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions.[28][29][30] The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies.[31] The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.[32] This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.

In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.

近年来，人们对“老”基因中“老”区域的产物的氨基酸组成进行了研究，“老”基因被定义为来自几个相距甚远的物种的生物体所共有的氨基酸组成，这些物种被认为在所有现存物种中只共享最后共同祖先。这些研究发现，这些区域的产物富含那些在 Miller-Urey 实验中也最容易产生的氨基酸。这表明，最初的遗传密码是基于较少数量的氨基酸-只有那些在生命起源之前的性质-比现在的。


Recent related studies

Jeffrey Bada, himself Miller's student, inherited the original equipment from the experiment when Miller died in 2007. Based on sealed vials from the original experiment, scientists have been able to show that although successful, Miller was never able to find out, with the equipment available to him, the full extent of the experiment's success. Later researchers have been able to isolate even more different amino acids, 25 altogether. Bada has estimated that more accurate measurements could easily bring out 30 or 40 more amino acids in very low concentrations, but the researchers have since discontinued the testing. Miller's experiment was therefore a remarkable success at synthesizing complex organic molecules from simpler chemicals, considering that all known life uses just 20 different amino acids.

杰弗里 · 巴达，米勒的学生，在2007年米勒去世时继承了实验的原始设备。基于原始实验中密封的小瓶，科学家们已经能够证明，尽管成功了，米勒仍然无法用现有的设备找到实验成功的全部原因。后来，研究人员已经能够分离出更多不同的氨基酸，总共25种。据 Bada 估计，更精确的测量方法可以轻而易举地提取出30或40多种低浓度的氨基酸，但是研究人员已经停止了这项测试。因此，米勒的实验在从简单的化学物质合成复杂的有机分子方面取得了显著的成功，考虑到所有已知的生命只使用20种不同的氨基酸。

In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.[33]


In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic experiment, reminiscent of Charles Darwin's envisioned "warm little pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with conditions similar to those of volcanic eruptions. This experiment had a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, the group found more organic molecules than Miller had. They found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 amines and many hydroxylated molecules, which could have been formed by hydroxyl radicals produced by the electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of carbonyl sulfide there could have helped these molecules form peptides.

2008年，一组科学家检查了11瓶米勒在20世纪50年代早期的实验中遗留下来的药水。除了这个经典的实验——让人想起查尔斯•达尔文(Charles Darwin)设想的“温暖的小池塘”(warm little pond)——米勒还进行了更多的实验，包括一个条件类似于火山爆发的实验。这个实验用喷嘴在火花放电处喷射蒸汽。通过使用高效液相色谱法和质谱法，研究小组发现了比 Miller 更多的有机分子。他们发现，类似火山的实验产生了最多的有机分子，22种氨基酸、5种胺和许多羟基化分子，这些分子可能是由带电蒸汽产生的羟基自由基形成的。研究小组认为，火山岛系统就是通过这种方式富集了大量的有机分子，而羰基硫的存在可能有助于这些分子形成肽。

Jeffrey Bada, himself Miller's student, inherited the original equipment from the experiment when Miller died in 2007. Based on sealed vials from the original experiment, scientists have been able to show that although successful, Miller was never able to find out, with the equipment available to him, the full extent of the experiment's success. Later researchers have been able to isolate even more different amino acids, 25 altogether. Bada has estimated that more accurate measurements could easily bring out 30 or 40 more amino acids in very low concentrations, but the researchers have since discontinued the testing. Miller's experiment was therefore a remarkable success at synthesizing complex organic molecules from simpler chemicals, considering that all known life uses just 20 different amino acids.[6]


The main problem of theories based around amino acids is the difficulty in obtaining spontaneous formation of peptides. Since John Desmond Bernal's suggestion that clay surfaces could have played a role in abiogenesis, scientific efforts have been dedicated to investigating clay-mediated peptide bond formation, with limited success. Peptides formed remained over-protected and shown no evidence of inheritance or metabolism. In December 2017 a theoretical model developed by Erastova and collaborators suggested that peptides could form at the interlayers of layered double hydroxides such as green rust in early earth conditions. According to the model, drying of the intercalated layered material should provide energy and co-alignment required for peptide bond formation in a ribosome-like fashion, while re-wetting should allow mobilising the newly formed peptides and repopulate the interlayer with new amino acids. This mechanism is expected to lead to the formation of 12+ amino acid-long peptides within 15-20 washes. Researches also observed slightly different adsorption preferences for different amino acids, and postulated that, if coupled to a diluted solution of mixed amino acids, such preferences could lead to sequencing.

以氨基酸为基础的理论的主要问题是很难获得肽的自发形成。自从约翰·德斯蒙德·伯纳尔提出粘土表面可能在自然发生中起作用以来，科学家致力于研究粘土介导的肽键的形成，但成效有限。形成的肽保护过度，没有遗传或新陈代谢的证据。2017年12月，Erastova 和他的合作者开发的一个理论模型表明，在早期的地球条件下，多肽可以在层状双氢氧化物的中间层形成，例如绿锈。根据该模型，插层材料的干燥应提供能量和以核糖体样的方式形成肽键所需的共排列，而再湿润应允许活化新形成的肽和重新填充层与新的氨基酸。这一机制有望在15-20次洗涤过程中形成12 + 氨基酸长肽。研究人员还观察到对不同氨基酸的吸附偏好略有不同，并假定，如果与混合氨基酸的稀释溶液相结合，这种偏好可能导致排序。

In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic experiment, reminiscent of Charles Darwin's envisioned "warm little pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with conditions similar to those of volcanic eruptions. This experiment had a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, the group found more organic molecules than Miller had. They found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 amines and many hydroxylated molecules, which could have been formed by hydroxyl radicals produced by the electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of carbonyl sulfide there could have helped these molecules form peptides.[34][35]


In October 2018, researchers at McMaster University on behalf of the Origins Institute announced the development of a new technology, called a Planet Simulator, to help study the origin of life on planet Earth and beyond.

2018年10月，麦马士达大学的研究人员代表起源研究所宣布了一项名为行星模拟器的新技术的发展，以帮助研究行星地球及其他地方的生命起源。

The main problem of theories based around amino acids is the difficulty in obtaining spontaneous formation of peptides. Since John Desmond Bernal's suggestion that clay surfaces could have played a role in abiogenesis[36], scientific efforts have been dedicated to investigating clay-mediated peptide bond formation, with limited success. Peptides formed remained over-protected and shown no evidence of inheritance or metabolism. In December 2017 a theoretical model developed by Erastova and collaborators [37][38] suggested that peptides could form at the interlayers of layered double hydroxides such as green rust in early earth conditions. According to the model, drying of the intercalated layered material should provide energy and co-alignment required for peptide bond formation in a ribosome-like fashion, while re-wetting should allow mobilising the newly formed peptides and repopulate the interlayer with new amino acids. This mechanism is expected to lead to the formation of 12+ amino acid-long peptides within 15-20 washes. Researches also observed slightly different adsorption preferences for different amino acids, and postulated that, if coupled to a diluted solution of mixed amino acids, such preferences could lead to sequencing.


In October 2018, researchers at McMaster University on behalf of the Origins Institute announced the development of a new technology, called a Planet Simulator, to help study the origin of life on planet Earth and beyond.[39][40][41][42]


Amino acids identified

Below is a table of amino acids produced and identified in the "classic" 1952 experiment, as published by Miller in 1953, and the 2010 re-analysis of vials from the H2S-rich spark discharge experiment.

下面是由 Miller 在1953年发表的1952年“经典”实验中产生和鉴定的氨基酸表，以及2010年对 h < sub > 2 s 高密度火花放电实验中小瓶的重新分析。

模板:Category see also


{ | class = “ wikitable sortable” style = “ text-align: right” Below is a table of amino acids produced and identified in the "classic" 1952 experiment, as published by Miller in 1953,[3] the 2008 re-analysis of vials from the volcanic spark discharge experiment,[43] and the 2010 re-analysis of vials from the H2S-rich spark discharge experiment.[44]
Amino acid 氨基酸
Produced in experiment 在实验中产生
Proteinogenic Proteinogenic Amino acid
Produced in experiment Miller–Urey
 Miller-Urey < br/> Proteinogenic Volcanic spark discharge
 火山火花放电 < br/>
H2S-rich spark discharge
 h < sub > 2 富 s 火花放电 < br/> Miller–Urey
模板:Small
Volcanic spark discharge
模板:Small 		Glycine 甘氨酸 H2S-rich spark discharge
模板:Small
Glycine 模板:Ya 模板:Ya
模板:Ya α-Alanine α-Alanine Yes
α-Alanine 模板:Ya 模板:Ya
模板:Ya β-Alanine β-Alanine Yes
β-Alanine 模板:Ya 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Aspartic acid

天冬氨酸

模板:No
Aspartic acid 模板:Ya 模板:Ya
模板:Ya α-Aminobutyric acid α-Aminobutyric acid Yes
α-Aminobutyric acid 模板:Ya 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Serine Serine 模板:No
Serine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Isoserine 异丝氨酸 Yes
Isoserine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya α-Aminoisobutyric acid α-Aminoisobutyric acid 模板:No
α-Aminoisobutyric acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya β-Aminoisobutyric acid β-Aminoisobutyric acid 模板:No
β-Aminoisobutyric acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya β-Aminobutyric acid β-Aminobutyric acid 模板:No
β-Aminobutyric acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya γ-Aminobutyric acid γ-Aminobutyric acid 模板:No
γ-Aminobutyric acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Valine

瓦林

模板:No
Valine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Isovaline

异缬氨酸

Yes
Isovaline 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Glutamic acid

谷氨酸

模板:No
Glutamic acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Ya Norvaline

诺瓦林

Yes
Norvaline 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na α-Aminoadipic acid

Α-氨基己二酸

模板:No
α-Aminoadipic acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na Homoserine

高丝氨酸

模板:No
Homoserine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na 2-Methylserine 2- 甲基丝氨酸 模板:No
2-Methylserine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na β-Hydroxyaspartic acid β-Hydroxyaspartic acid 模板:No
β-Hydroxyaspartic acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na Ornithine

鸟氨酸

模板:No
Ornithine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na 2-Methylglutamic acid 2- 甲基谷氨酸 模板:No
2-Methylglutamic acid 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na Phenylalanine 苯丙氨酸 模板:No
Phenylalanine 模板:Na 模板:Ya
模板:Na Homocysteic acid

高同型半胱氨酸

Yes
Homocysteic acid 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya S-Methylcysteine

S- 甲基半胱氨酸

模板:No
S-Methylcysteine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Methionine 蛋氨酸 模板:No
Methionine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Methionine sulfoxide

蛋氨酸亚砜

Yes
Methionine sulfoxide 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Methionine sulfone

蛋氨酸砜

模板:No
Methionine sulfone 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Isoleucine

异亮氨酸

模板:No
Isoleucine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Leucine

亮氨酸

Yes
Leucine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Ethionine Ethionine Yes
Ethionine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Cysteine

半胱氨酸

模板:No
Cysteine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Histidine 组氨酸 Yes
Histidine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Lysine

赖氨酸

Yes
Lysine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Asparagine

天冬酰胺

Yes
Asparagine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Pyrrolysine 吡咯赖氨酸 Yes
Pyrrolysine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Proline Proline Yes
Proline 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Glutamine

谷氨酰胺

Yes
Glutamine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Arginine

精氨酸

Yes
Arginine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Threonine

苏氨酸

Yes
Threonine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Ya Selenocysteine

硒代半胱氨酸

Yes
Selenocysteine 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Tryptophan

色氨酸

Yes
Tryptophan 模板:Na 模板:Na
模板:Na Tyrosine 酪氨酸 Yes
Tyrosine 模板:Na 模板:Na

| 模板:Na

| style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes

|}


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  38. ↑ Erastova V, Degiacomi MT, Fraser D, Greenwell HC (December 2017). "Mineral surface chemistry control for origin of prebiotic peptides". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 2033. Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.2033E. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02248-y. PMC 5725419. PMID 29229963.
  39. ↑ Balch, Erica (4 October 2018). "Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life on Earth and beyond". McMaster University. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
  40. ↑ Staff (4 October 2018). "Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  41. ↑ Staff (2018). "Planet Simulator". IntraVisionGroup.com. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  42. ↑ Anderson, Paul Scott (14 October 2018). "New technology may help solve mystery of life's origins - How did life on Earth begin? A new technology, called Planet Simulator, might finally help solve the mystery". EarthSky. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
  43. ↑ Myers, P. Z. (October 16, 2008). "Old scientists never clean out their refrigerators". Pharyngula. Archived from the original on October 17, 2008. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
  44. ↑ Parker, ET; Cleaves, HJ; Dworkin, JP; et al. (February 14, 2011). "Primordial synthesis of amines and amino acids in a 1958 Miller H2S-rich spark discharge experiment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (14): 5526–31. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5526P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1019191108. PMC 3078417. PMID 21422282.


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