热力学定律 Laws of thermodynamics

热力学定律The laws of thermodynamics定义了许多物理量，如 温度temperature、 能量energy和熵 entropy，这些物理量表征处于热力学平衡的热力学系统。这些定律描述了这些物理量之间的关系，并构成了排除某些现象的可能性的基础，例如永动机。除了在热力学中的应用之外，它们也是基础物理学中的重要基本定律，也适用于其他自然科学。

传统上， 热力学Thermodynamics描述了三个基本定律：（简单的按顺序命名为）第一定律、第二定律和第三定律。此外，在前三个定律确立之后，人们认识到可以提出另一个相对于这三个定律更为基本的定律，即第零定律。

热力学第零定律zeroth law of thermodynamics定义了 热平衡thermal equilibrium，并为温度定义奠定了基础：如果两个系统各与第三个系统处于热平衡，则它们彼此也处于热平衡。

热力学第一定律 first law of thermodynamics: 当能量以 功work、 热heat或物质的形式进入或离开一个系统时，根据能量守恒定律, 系统的内能 internal energy发生变化。同样地，第一类永动机机器(不需要能量输入就可以做功的机器)是不可能造成的。

热力学第二定律 second law of thermodynamics: 在自然热力学过程中，相互作用的热力学系统的熵的总和增加。同样地，第二类永动机(自发地把热能转化为机械功的机器)是不可能制造出的。

热力学第三定律 third law of thermodynamics: 当温度趋于 绝对零度 absolute zero时，系统的熵趋于一个定值。除非晶固体(玻璃)外，系统在绝对零度时的熵通常接近于零。

有人提出了其他的定律，但没有一个达到公认的四个定律的普遍性，也没有在标准教科书中被讨论^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] 。

热力学零定律 Zeroth law

热力学第零定律可以用以下形式表示：

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如果两个系统都各与第三个系统处于热平衡状态，则它们彼此处于热平衡状态.

该定律旨在允许一个经验参数存在，即温度，作为热力学系统的一种性质，即相互处于热平衡的系统具有相同的温度。这里所述的定律适用于特定的物质(例如一定量的气体物质）来匹配其他物质的温度，但不能证明温度是一个可以用实数来衡量的量。

虽然这个版本的定律是最常见的陈述版本之一，但它只是被称为“第零定律”的众多陈述之一。有些陈述更进一步，提供了一个重要的物理事实，即温度是一维的，并且从概念上把物体按实数顺序由冷到热排列。^[7]^[8]^[9]也许对于“第零定律”并没有唯一的“最佳的表述”，因为在文献中有一系列的热力学原理的表述，每一种都要求对热力学定律作出各自适当的说明。

虽然这些关于温度和热平衡的概念是热力学的基础，并在19世纪得到了清楚的阐述，但是直到20世纪30年代福勒和古根海姆这样做的时候，人们才普遍感觉到需要对上述定律进行明确编号，而这时第一定律、第二定律和第三定律已经得到广泛的理解和认可。因此，它被称为第零定律。该定律作为早期定律基础的重要性在于，它允许以非循环的方式定义温度，而无需参考熵及其共轭变量。这样的温度定义被称为“经验主义的”。^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]

First law

第一定律

The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems.

The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic systems.

热力学第一定律是 能量守恒 conservation of energy定律的一个版本，适用于热力学系统。

The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but can be neither created nor destroyed.

能量守恒定律指出，一个孤立系统的总能量是恒定的;能量可以从一种形式转化为另一种形式，但能量既不会凭空产生也不会凭空消失。

For a thermodynamic process without transfer of matter, the first law is often formulated

对于一个没有物质转移的热力学过程，第一定律通常用公式表示为：

[math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U_{\rm system} = Q - W }[/math],

where $Δ U system$ denotes the change in the internal energy of a closed system, $Q$ denotes the quantity of energy supplied to the system as heat, and $W$ denotes the amount of thermodynamic work (expressed here with a negative sign) done by the system on its surroundings. (An alternate sign convention not used in this article is to define $W$ as the work done on the system.)

where denotes the change in the internal energy of a closed system, denotes the quantity of energy supplied to the system as heat, and denotes the amount of thermodynamic work (expressed here with a negative sign) done by the system on its surroundings. (An alternate sign convention not used in this article is to define as the work done on the system.)

其中 $Δ U system$ 表示一个封闭系统内部能量的变化， $Q$ 表示外界以热的形式提供给系统的能量， $W$ 表示该系统对周围环境所做的热力学功(在这里用负号表示)。(定义对系统所做的功在本文中没有使用的另一个符号约定。)

In the case of a two-stage thermodynamic cycle of a closed system, which returns to its original state, the heat $Q in$ supplied to the system in one stage of the cycle, minus the heat $Q out$ removed from it in the other stage, plus the thermodynamic work added to the system, $W in$ , equals the thermodynamic work that leaves the system $W out$ .

In the case of a two-stage thermodynamic cycle of a closed system, which returns to its original state, the heat supplied to the system in one stage of the cycle, minus the heat removed from it in the other stage, plus the thermodynamic work added to the system, , equals the thermodynamic work that leaves the system .

在封闭系统的两级 热力循环thermodynamic cycle中，该循环回到其原始状态，在循环的一个阶段向系统提供的热量 $Q in$ ，减去另一个阶段从系统中去除的热量 $Q out$ ，加上对系统做的的热力学功 $W in$ ，等于离开系统的做的热力学功 $W out$ 。

[math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U_{\rm system\,(full\,cycle)}=0 }[/math]

hence, for a full cycle,

因此，对于一个完整的循环,

Or [math]\displaystyle{ Q - W = Q_{\rm in} - Q_{\rm out} - (W_{\rm out} - W_{\rm in}) =0 }[/math].

For the particular case of a thermally isolated system (adiabatically isolated), the change of the internal energy of an adiabatically isolated system can only be the result of the work added to the system, because the adiabatic assumption is: $Q = 0$ .

For the particular case of a thermally isolated system (adiabatically isolated), the change of the internal energy of an adiabatically isolated system can only be the result of the work added to the system, because the adiabatic assumption is: 0}}.

对于绝热系统（绝热隔离）的特殊情况，绝热隔离系统内能的变化只能是系统做功的结果，因为绝热假设是: $Q = 0$ 。

[math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U_{\rm system} = U_{\rm final} - U_{\rm initial} = W_{\rm in} - W_{\rm out} }[/math]

For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems, which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

For processes that include transfer of matter, a further statement is needed: 'With due account of the respective fiducial reference states of the systems, when two systems,which may be of different chemical compositions, initially separated only by an impermeable wall, and otherwise isolated, are combined into a new system by the thermodynamic operation of removal of the wall, then

对于包括物质转移的过程，还需要进一步的说明: ‘在充分考虑了各个系统的基准参考状态后，当两个系统---- 它们可能由不同的化学成分组成，最初只是被防渗墙隔开，或者是被隔离---- 通过移除墙体的热力学操作结合成一个新系统，那么

[math]\displaystyle{ U_{\rm system} = U_1 + U_2 }[/math],

where $U system$ denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and $U 1$ and $U 2$ denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.'

where denotes the internal energy of the combined system, and and denote the internal energies of the respective separated systems.'

其中 $U system$ 表示组合系统的内能， $U 1$ and $U 2$ 表示各自分离系统的内能

The First Law encompasses several principles:

第一定律包括以下几个原则:

The law of conservation of energy.
能量守恒定律

This states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy can change forms, and energy can flow from one place to another. A particular consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that the total energy of an isolated system does not change.

能量既不能被创造也不能被消灭。但是，能量可以改变形式，能量可以从一个地方流动到另一个地方。能量守恒定律的一个特殊结果是，孤立系统的总能量不变。

The concept of internal energy and its relationship to temperature.
内能的概念及其与温度关系。

If a system has a definite temperature, then its total energy has three distinguishable components. If the system is in motion as a whole, it has kinetic energy. If the system as a whole is in an externally imposed force field (e.g. gravity), it has potential energy relative to some reference point in space. Finally, it has internal energy, which is a fundamental quantity of thermodynamics. The establishment of the concept of internal energy distinguishes the first law of thermodynamics from the more general law of conservation of energy.

如果系统具有确定的温度，则其总能量具有三个可区分的成分，分别称为动能（由与系统整体运动产生的能量），势能（由外部施加的立场产生的能量，比如重力）和内能（热热力学的基本量）。内能概念的确立将热力学第一定律与一般的能量守恒定律区分开来。

 ——Solitude(讨论)

[math]\displaystyle{ E_{\rm total} = \mathrm{KE}_{\rm system} + \mathrm{PE}_{\rm system} + U_{\rm system} }[/math]

The internal energy of a substance can be explained as the sum of the diverse kinetic energies of the erratic microscopic motions of its constituent atoms, and of the potential energy of interactions between them. Those microscopic energy terms are collectively called the substance's internal energy,

U

, and are accounted for by macroscopic thermodynamic property. The total of the kinetic energies of microscopic motions of the constituent atoms increases as the system's temperature increases; this assumes no other interactions at the microscopic level of the system such as chemical reactions, potential energy of constituent atoms with respect to each other.

The internal energy of a substance can be explained as the sum of the diverse kinetic energies of the erratic microscopic motions of its constituent atoms, and of the potential energy of interactions between them. Those microscopic energy terms are collectively called the substance's internal energy, , and are accounted for by macroscopic thermodynamic property. The total of the kinetic energies of microscopic motions of the constituent atoms increases as the system's temperature increases; this assumes no other interactions at the microscopic level of the system such as chemical reactions, potential energy of constituent atoms with respect to each other.

物质的内能可以解释为其组成原子的不规则微观运动的不同动能和它们之间相互作用的势能的总和。这些微观能量统称为物质的内能，并由宏观热力学性质来解释。组成原子的微观运动的总和随着系统温度的升高而增加; 这假设在系统的微观层次上没有其他的相互作用，例如化学反应、组成原子相互间的势能。

Work is a process of transferring energy to or from a system in ways that can be described by macroscopic mechanical forces exerted by factors in the surroundings, outside the system. Examples are an externally driven shaft agitating a stirrer within the system, or an externally imposed electric field that polarizes the material of the system, or a piston that compresses the system. Unless otherwise stated, it is customary to treat work as occurring without its dissipation to the surroundings. Practically speaking, in all natural process, some of the work is dissipated by internal friction or viscosity. The work done by the system can come from its overall kinetic energy, from its overall potential energy, or from its internal energy.

做功是一种以某种方式向系统传递能量或从系统传递能量的过程，其方式可以用作用在系统外部及其周围环境之间的宏观机械力来描述。例如，外部驱动的轴在系统内搅动，或外部施加的电场使系统材料极化，或活塞压缩系统。除非另有说明，习惯上把做功看作是在不影响周围环境的情况下发生的。实际上，在一切自然过程中，有些功是因内摩擦或粘黏而消失的。系统所做的功，可以来自于它的总动能，总势能或者它的内能。

For example, when a machine (not a part of the system) lifts a system upwards, some energy is transferred from the machine to the system. The system's energy increases as work is done on the system and in this particular case, the energy increase of the system is manifested as an increase in the system's gravitational potential energy. Work added to the system increases the Potential Energy of the system:

例如，当一台机器(不是系统的一部分)将系统向上提升时，一些能量就会从机器转移到系统。系统的能量随着系统所做功的增加而增加，在这种特殊的情况下，系统的能量增加表现为系统的重力势能的增加。机器将系统向上提升时对系统做的功增加了系统的势能:

[math]\displaystyle{ W = \Delta \mathrm{PE}_{\rm system} }[/math]

Or in general, the energy added to the system in the form of work can be partitioned to kinetic, potential or internal energy forms:

或者一般来说，以功的形式加入系统的能量可以分为动能、势能或内能:

[math]\displaystyle{ W = \Delta \mathrm{KE}_{\rm system}+\Delta \mathrm{PE}_{\rm system}+\Delta U_{\rm system} }[/math]

When matter is transferred into a system, that masses' associated internal energy and potential energy are transferred with it.
当物质转移到一个系统中时，物质相关的内能和势能也随之转移。

[math]\displaystyle{ \left( u \,\Delta M \right)_{\rm in} = \Delta U_{\rm system} }[/math]

where

u

denotes the internal energy per unit mass of the transferred matter, as measured while in the surroundings; and

Δ M

denotes the amount of transferred mass.

where

u

denotes the internal energy per unit mass of the transferred matter, as measured while in the surroundings; and denotes the amount of transferred mass.

其中

u

表示在周围环境中测量的转移物质的单位质量的内能;

Δ M

表示被转移物质的数量。

The flow of heat is a form of energy transfer.
热的流动是能量传递的一种形式。

Heating is a natural process of moving energy to or from a system other than by work or the transfer of matter. Direct passage of heat is only from a hotter to a colder system.

加热是一个将能量转移到系统中或从系统中转移出的自然过程，而不是通过做功或物质的转移。热量只能从较热的系统直接传递到较冷的系统。

If the system has rigid walls that are impermeable to matter, and consequently energy cannot be transferred as work into or out from the system, and no external long-range force field affects it that could change its internal energy, then the internal energy can only be changed by the transfer of energy as heat:

如果系统具有不渗透物质的刚性壁，那么能量不能通过做功传入或传出系统，而且没有外部的远程力场影响系统以改变其内能，那么内能只能通过以热的形式进行传递来改变:

[math]\displaystyle{ \Delta U_{\rm system}=Q }[/math]

where

Q

denotes the amount of energy transferred into the system as heat.

where

Q

denotes the amount of energy transferred into the system as heat.

其中

Q

表示以热量形式传递到系统中的能量。

Combining these principles leads to one traditional statement of the first law of thermodynamics: it is not possible to construct a machine which will perpetually output work without an equal amount of energy input to that machine. Or more briefly, a perpetual motion machine of the first kind is impossible.

结合这些原理，就可以得出传统的热力学第一定律的表述: 不可能制造一台在没有等量能量输入的情况下不断做功的机器。或者更简单地说，第一类永动机是不可能造成的。

Second law

第二定律

The second law of thermodynamics indicates the irreversibility of natural processes and, in many cases, the tendency of natural processes to lead towards spatial homogeneity of matter and energy, and especially of temperature. It can be formulated in a variety of interesting and important ways.

热力学第二定律表明了自然过程的不可逆性，并且在许多情况下，自然过程的趋向于物质和能量的空间均匀性，特别是温度。它可以用各种有趣而重要的方式来表达。

It implies the existence of a quantity called the entropy of a thermodynamic system. In terms of this quantity it implies that

这意味着热力学系统中存在一个叫做熵的量。就这个数量而言，它意味着

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当两个最初隔离的系统分别位于彼此独立但不一定彼此处于热力学平衡的空间区域中，然后彼此相互作用时，它们最终将达到相互的热力学平衡。最初隔离的系统的熵之和小于或等于最终组合的总熵。当两个初始系统各自的强变量(温度、压力)相等时，才发生平等。那么最终的系统也有相同的值。

The second law is applicable to a wide variety of processes, reversible and irreversible. All natural processes are irreversible. Reversible processes are a useful and convenient theoretical fiction, but do not occur in nature.

第二定律适用于可逆和不可逆的多种过程。所有的自然过程都是不可逆的。可逆过程是一个有用的和方便的理论假设，但不发生在自然界。

A prime example of irreversibility is in the transfer of heat by conduction or radiation. It was known long before the discovery of the notion of entropy that when two bodies initially of different temperatures come into thermal connection, then heat always flows from the hotter body to the colder one.

这种不可逆性的一个主要例子是通过传导或辐射进行的热传递。早在熵的概念被发现之前，人们就已经知道，当两个最初温度不同的物体直接进行热连接时，热量总是从较热的物体流向较冷的物体。

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

第二定律也告诉我们除了热传递之外的不可逆性，例如摩擦力和粘度，以及化学反应。该定律应给熵的概念提供更广泛的范围。

According to the second law of thermodynamics, in a theoretical and fictive reversible heat transfer, an element of heat transferred, δQ, is the product of the temperature (T), both of the system and of the sources or destination of the heat, with the increment (dS) of the system's conjugate variable, its entropy (S)

根据热力学第二定律，在理论上和假设的可逆传热中，传热元素δQ是系统和热源或热目的地的温度(t)与系统共轭变量熵（S）的增量(dS)的乘积

[math]\displaystyle{ \delta Q = T\,dS\, . }[/math]^[1]

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.^[16]

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.

当只知道宏观状态时，熵也可以被看作是对系统运动和构型的微观细节有关的物理度量。这种细节通常在微观或分子尺度上被称为无序。该定律声称，对于一个系统的两个给定的宏观指定状态，它们之间存在一个被称为熵差的量。这种熵的差异定义了需要多少额外的微观物理信息来指定一个宏观指定状态，给定另一个宏观指定状态-通常是一个方便选择的参考状态，这可能是假定存在的，而不是明确陈述的。自然过程的最终条件始终包含着微观上特定的影响，而这些影响，从过程初始条件的宏观规定来看是无法被完全准确预测的。这就是为什么熵在自然过程中会增加——熵的增加告诉我们需要多少额外的微观信息来区分最终的宏观指定状态和最初的宏观指定状态。

Third law

第三定律

The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows:

热力学第三定律可以表示为：

The entropy of a perfect crystal of any pure substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.

The entropy of a perfect crystal of any pure substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero.

当温度接近绝对零度时，任何纯物质的完整晶体的熵接近零。

At zero temperature the system must be in a state with the minimum thermal energy. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has only one state with minimum energy. Entropy is related to the number of possible microstates according to:

在零温时，系统必须处于热能最小的状态。如果完美晶体只有一种能量最小的状态，则该说法成立。熵与可能的微状态数有关:

[math]\displaystyle{ S = k_{\mathrm B}\, \mathrm{ln}\, \Omega }[/math]

Where S is the entropy of the system, k_B Boltzmann's constant, and Ω the number of microstates (e.g. possible configurations of atoms). At absolute zero there is only 1 microstate possible (Ω=1 as all the atoms are identical for a pure substance and as a result all orders are identical as there is only one combination) and ln(1) = 0.

其中 s 是系统的熵，k_B是玻尔兹曼常数，以及Ω是微状态数(例如:可能的原子结构)。在绝对零度下只有一种微状态(Ω=1，因为纯物质的所有原子都是相同的，所以所有阶数都是相同的，因为只有一个组合)和 ln (1)=0。

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

第三定律的一个更普遍的形式，适用于像玻璃这样的系统，可能有一个以上的微观上截然不同的能量状态，或可能有一个微观上截然不同的“冻结状态”，虽然不是一个严格意义上的的最低能量状态，也不是严格意义上的热力学平衡，在绝对零度的温度下:

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.

系统的熵随着温度接近绝对零度而接近一个恒定值。

The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.

这个常数(不一定是零)被称为系统的余熵。

History

历史

Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
热学和统计物理学的哲学

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws. By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics. Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently. In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law. Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws. By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics. Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently. In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases. Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law. Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

大约在1797年，拉姆福德(出生于本杰明·汤普森)表明，无休止的机械作用可以从固定数量的工作物质中产生无限量的热量，从而挑战了热量理论。该理论认为在固定数量的工作物质中会有有限的热量 / 能量。1824年，萨迪·卡诺 Sadi Carnot建立了第一个热力学原理，也就是后来的热力学第二定律。到1860年，正如鲁道夫·克劳修斯 Rudolf Clausius和威廉·汤姆森 William Thomson等人的著作所正式规定的那样，已经确立的两个热力学原理得到了发展，第一个原理和第二个原理，后来被重新定义为热力学定律。例如，1873年，热力学学家乔赛亚·威拉德·吉布斯 Josiah Willard Gibbs在他的回忆录《流体热力学的图解法》中明确阐述了热力学的前两个绝对定律。整个20世纪的一些教科书对这些定律进行了不同的编号。在一些与化学无关的领域，第二定律被认为仅仅处理热机的效率问题，而所谓的第三定律则处理熵增问题。直接定义熵计算的零点不被认为是一条定律。这种分离逐渐形成了第二定律，现代第三定律被广泛采用。

==See also==
另请参阅

化学热力学 Chemical thermodynamics

守恒定律 Conservation law

熵增 Entropy production

金斯伯格定理 Ginsberg's theorem

宇宙热寂 Heat death of the universe

H定理 H-theorem

科学规律 Laws of science

昂萨格倒易关系（有时被描述为热力学第四定律） Onsager reciprocal relations (sometimes described as a fourth law of thermodynamics)

统计力学 Statistical mechanics

热力学方程表 Table of thermodynamic equations

==References==
参考文献

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Guggenheim 1985的引用提供文字
↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Kittel and Kroemer 1980的引用提供文字
↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Adkins 1968的引用提供文字
↑ 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为LJCV 2008的引用提供文字
↑ De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962). Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics, North Holland, Amsterdam.

↑ Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations, Wiley-Interscience, London,

.

↑ Sommerfeld, A. (1951/1955). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, vol. 5 of Lectures on Theoretical Physics, edited by F. Bopp, J. Meixner, translated by J. Kestin, Academic Press, New York, p. 1.

↑ Serrin, J. (1978). The concepts of thermodynamics, in Contemporary Developments in Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations, Rio de Janeiro, August 1977, edited by G.M. de La Penha, L.A.J. Medeiros, North-Holland, Amsterdam,

, pp. 411–51.

↑ Serrin, J. (1986). Chapter 1, 'An Outline of Thermodynamical Structure', pp. 3–32, in New Perspectives in Thermodynamics, edited by J. Serrin, Springer, Berlin,

.

↑ Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, (first edition 1968), third edition 1983, Cambridge University Press,

, pp. 18–20.

↑ Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York,

, p. 26.

↑ Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 30, 34ff, 46f, 83.

↑ *Münster, A. (1970), Classical Thermodynamics, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London,

, p. 22.

↑ Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966). Elements of Classical Thermodynamics for Advanced Students of Physics, original publication 1957, reprint 1966, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 10.
↑ Wilson, H.A. (1966). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 4, 8, 68, 86, 97, 311.

↑ Ben-Naim, A. (2008). A Farewell to Entropy: Statistical Thermodynamics Based on Information, World Scientific, New Jersey,

.

External links

In Our Time: Perpetual Motion, BBC discussion about the Laws, with Ruth Gregory, Frank Close and Steven Bramwell, hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 24 September 2015.

Category:Scientific laws

类别: 科学定律

This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Laws of thermodynamics. Its edit history can be viewed at 热力学定律/edithistory

[Guggenheim_1985-1] 1.0 ^1.1 ^1.2 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Guggenheim 1985的引用提供文字

[Kittel_and_Kroemer_1980-2] 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Kittel and Kroemer 1980的引用提供文字

[Adkins_1968-3] 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为Adkins 1968的引用提供文字

[LJCV_2008-4] 引用错误：无效<ref>标签；未给name属性为LJCV 2008的引用提供文字

[DGM_1962-5] De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962). Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics, North Holland, Amsterdam.

[Glansdorff_and_Prigogine_1971-6] Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations, Wiley-Interscience, London,
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[7] Sommerfeld, A. (1951/1955). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, vol. 5 of Lectures on Theoretical Physics, edited by F. Bopp, J. Meixner, translated by J. Kestin, Academic Press, New York, p. 1.

[8] Serrin, J. (1978). The concepts of thermodynamics, in Contemporary Developments in Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations, Rio de Janeiro, August 1977, edited by G.M. de La Penha, L.A.J. Medeiros, North-Holland, Amsterdam,
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[9] Serrin, J. (1986). Chapter 1, 'An Outline of Thermodynamical Structure', pp. 3–32, in New Perspectives in Thermodynamics, edited by J. Serrin, Springer, Berlin,
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[10] Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, (first edition 1968), third edition 1983, Cambridge University Press,
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[11] Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York,
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[12] Buchdahl, H.A. (1966), The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 30, 34ff, 46f, 83.

[13] *Münster, A. (1970), Classical Thermodynamics, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London,
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[14] Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966). Elements of Classical Thermodynamics for Advanced Students of Physics, original publication 1957, reprint 1966, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 10.

[15] Wilson, H.A. (1966). Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 4, 8, 68, 86, 97, 311.

[16] Ben-Naim, A. (2008). A Farewell to Entropy: Statistical Thermodynamics Based on Information, World Scientific, New Jersey,
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热力学定律 Laws of thermodynamics

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热力学零定律 Zeroth law

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