达尔文

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Charles Robert Darwin 模板:Post-nominals (模板:IPAc-en; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.模板:Ref label His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.

Charles Robert Darwin 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

1809年2月12日至1882年4月19日)是一位英国自然学家，地质学家和生物学家，最著名的是他对进化论科学的贡献。他的命题，即所有物种的生命随着时间的推移从共同的祖先进化而来，现在已被广泛接受，并被认为是科学的一个基本概念。在与阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士的一份联合出版物中，他介绍了他的科学理论，即这种进化的分支模式源于他称之为自然选择的过程，在这个过程中，为生存而进行的斗争具有类似于20世纪90年代人工选择所涉及的人工选择的效果。达尔文被认为是人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一，他在20世纪90年代西敏寺被安葬。到了19世纪70年代，科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经接受了进化论的事实。然而，许多人倾向于相互竞争的解释，认为自然选择只起到很小的作用，直到20世纪30年代到50年代现代进化综论的出现，才形成了广泛的共识，认为自然选择是进化的基本机制。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的统一理论，解释了生命的多样性。

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ's College) encouraged his passion for natural science. His five-year voyage on established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's conception of gradual geological change, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.

达尔文早期对自然的兴趣导致他忽视了在爱丁堡大学的医学教育; 相反，他帮助研究海洋无脊椎动物。在剑桥大学(基督学院)的学习激发了他对自然科学的热情。他五年的航海经历使他成为一位杰出的地质学家，他的观察和理论支持了查尔斯 · 莱尔的渐进地质变化的概念，他的旅行日记的出版使他成为一位著名的作家。

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ's College) encouraged his passion for natural science. His five-year voyage on 模板:HMS established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's conception of gradual geological change, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.

旅途中收集的野生动物和化石的地理分布令达尔文感到困惑，于是他开始了详细的调查，并在1838年提出了他的自然选择理论。尽管他与几位自然学家讨论了自己的想法，但他需要时间进行广泛的研究，他的地质工作具有优先权。1858年，他正在撰写自己的理论，这时阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士寄给他一篇文章，描述了同样的想法，促使他们立即联合发表了这两个理论。达尔文的工作建立了进化下降与修正作为主导的科学解释多样化的性质。

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

Biography

Early life and education

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount. He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.

查尔斯·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在希罗普郡的什鲁斯伯里，在他家的山上。他是富裕社会的医生和金融家罗伯特 · 达尔文和苏珊娜 · 达尔文的六个孩子中的第五个。他的祖父伊拉斯谟 · 达尔文和约西亚 · 韦奇伍德都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟斯 · 达尔文在他的《祖诺米亚》(1794)中赞扬了进化论和共同后裔的一般概念，这是一种逐渐创造的诗意幻想，包括未开化的思想，期待着他的孙子扩展的概念。

See also: Charles Darwin's education and Darwin-Wedgwood family

Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount. He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.

Painting of the seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, by Ellen Sharples

1816年，[ Ellen Sharples ]绘制的七岁的查尔斯 · 达尔文的油画

Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.

这两个家庭基本上都是一神论者，尽管威基伍德一家采用了英国国教。他于1809年11月在什鲁斯伯里的圣公会教堂接受了小查尔斯的洗礼，但是查尔斯和他的兄弟姐妹们和他们的母亲一起参加了一神教堂的洗礼。8岁的查尔斯在1817年加入了牧师开办的走读学校时，就已经喜欢上了自然历史和收藏。那年七月，他的母亲去世了。1818年9月，他和哥哥伊拉斯谟一起在附近的英国圣公会什鲁斯伯里学校寄宿。

Painting of the seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, by Ellen Sharples

Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest.

1825年的夏天，达尔文作为一名见习医生，帮助他的父亲治疗希罗普郡的穷人，然后在1825年10月和他的兄弟伊拉斯谟一起进入爱丁堡大学医学院(当时是英国最好的医学院)。达尔文认为讲座枯燥乏味，手术使他苦恼，所以他忽略了学习。约翰 · 埃德蒙斯通是一名获得自由的黑奴，他曾陪同查尔斯 · 沃特顿在南美洲的热带雨林中进行剥制动物标本的工作。

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest.

In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals. Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

在大学的第二年，达尔文加入了普林尼安学会(Plinian Society) ，这是一个学生自然历史小组，小组内展开了生动的辩论，持唯物主义观点的激进民主学生挑战正统的宗教科学概念。他协助罗伯特 · 埃德蒙 · 格兰特对福斯湾海洋无脊椎动物的解剖学和生命周期进行研究，1827年3月27日，他在普林尼安号上提出了自己的发现，即在牡蛎壳中发现的黑色孢子是水蛭的卵。有一天，格兰特赞扬了拉马克的进化论思想。达尔文被格兰特的大胆惊呆了，但最近在他的祖父伊拉斯谟的日记中读到了类似的想法。达尔文对罗伯特 · 詹姆逊的自然史课程感到厌烦，该课程涵盖了地质学，包括“海王星论”和“地球深成论”之间的辩论。他学习了植物的分类，并协助当时欧洲最大的博物馆之一——大学博物馆的收藏工作。

In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.模板:Sfn He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals. Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32). Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.

达尔文对医学研究的忽视惹恼了他的父亲，后者精明地把他送到剑桥的基督学院去攻读哲学硕士学位，作为成为英国圣公会乡村牧师的第一步。由于达尔文没有资格参加特里波斯学院的课程，他于1828年1月参加了普通学位课程。比起学习，他更喜欢骑马和射击。在达尔文入学的最初几个月，他的二表弟威廉 · 达尔文 · 福克斯也在基督教堂学习。狐狸的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象，向达尔文介绍了昆虫学，并影响他去收集甲虫。他对此十分热心，并将他的一些发现发表在詹姆斯 · 弗朗西斯 · 斯蒂芬斯的《英国昆虫学插图》(1829-32)上。也是通过 Fox，达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史帝芬·韩斯洛的密友和追随者。(1794).在1831年1月的期末考试中，达尔文成绩不错，在178名普通学位考生中名列第十。

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32). Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. He met other leading parson-naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley's Evidences of Christianity (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature. He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.

达尔文不得不留在剑桥直到1831年6月。他研究了佩利的《《自然神学》(首次出版于1802年) ，其中提出了自然界的神圣设计的论点，解释了上帝通过自然法则行事的适应性。他阅读了 John Herschel 的新书《自然哲学研究的初步论述》(1831年) ，这本书描述了自然哲学的最高目标，即通过基于观察的归纳推理理解这些规律，以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡在1799-1804年对科学旅行的个人叙述。受到“燃烧的热情”的启发，达尔文计划毕业后和一些同学去特纳利夫岛学习热带的自然历史。在准备过程中，他参加了亚当 · 塞奇威克的地质学课程，然后在8月4日与他一起前往威尔士，花了两个星期的时间绘制地层图。

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature. He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.

Survey voyage on HMS Beagle

The voyage of the Beagle, 1831–1836

小猎犬号航海记，1831-1836

After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a week with student friends at Barmouth, then returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on with captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

离开威尔士的塞奇威克后，达尔文在巴茅斯与他的学生朋友们度过了一个星期，然后在8月29日回到家中，发现亨斯洛写了一封信，信中提议他作为一名合适的(即使未完成)博物学家，与队长罗伯特•菲茨罗伊(Robert FitzRoy)合作，成为一名自筹资金的临时职位。他强调，这是一个绅士的职位，而不是“一个纯粹的收藏家”。这艘船将在四个星期后出发，去探索南美洲的海岸线。罗伯特 · 达尔文反对他儿子计划的为期两年的航行，认为这是浪费时间，但在他姐夫约西亚 · 韦奇伍德二世的劝说下，同意(并资助)他儿子的参与。达尔文小心翼翼地以私人身份保留对自己收藏品的控制权，打算将其捐献给一个重要的科学机构。

The voyage of the Beagle, 1831–1836

After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a week with student friends at Barmouth, then returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on 模板:HMS with captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts. He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family. He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal. Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton collected in a calm spell.

航程延误后，于1831年12月27日开始，持续了将近五年。按照菲茨罗伊的计划，达尔文把大部分时间花在陆地调查地质学和收集自然历史资料上，而贝格尔号则负责勘测和绘制海岸图。他对自己的观察和理论推测进行了仔细的记录，在旅途中，他的标本连同信件一起被送到剑桥，其中还包括一份给家人的日记副本。他在地质学、甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面有一定的专业知识，但在其他所有领域，他都是一个新手，能干地收集标本供专家鉴定。尽管患有严重的晕船，达尔文在船上写了大量的笔记。他的动物学笔记大部分是关于海洋无脊椎动物的，首先是平静时收集的浮游生物。

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts. He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family. He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal. Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton collected in a calm spell.

On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods, and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology. When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest, but detested the sight of slavery, and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.

在他们在佛得角圣杰戈的第一次岸上停留时，达尔文发现在火山岩悬崖的高处有一条白带，其中包括贝壳。菲茨罗伊给了他查尔斯 · 莱尔的《地质学原理第一卷，其中阐述了在漫长的岁月中陆地缓慢上升或下降的均变说的概念，达尔文看到了莱尔的方式，提出了理论并考虑写一本关于地质学的书。当他们到达巴西时，达尔文对热带森林感到高兴，但厌恶奴隶制的景象，并与菲茨罗伊争论这个问题。

On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,模板:Ref label and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology. When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest, but detested the sight of slavery, and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.

The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They stopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known Megatherium by a tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.

调查继续在巴塔哥尼亚南部进行。他们在布兰卡湾停了下来，在 Punta Alta Darwin 附近的悬崖上，除了现代的贝壳外，还发现了大量已经灭绝的大型哺乳动物的化石骨骼，这表明最近的物种灭绝没有气候变化或灾难的迹象。他通过一颗牙齿以及它与骨质盔甲的联系来确定这块鲜为人知的巨兽，起初他觉得这块盔甲就像是当地犰狳身上的巨型盔甲。当他们到达英国时，这些发现引起了极大的兴趣。

The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They stopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known Megatherium by a tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.

On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.

在与高乔人一起进入内陆探索地质和收集更多化石的过程中，达尔文对革命时期的土著人和殖民地人民获得了社会、政治和人类学方面的深刻见解，并了解到两种类型的土卫五有着各自独立但相互重叠的领地。再往南，他看到了台阶状的砾石平原和贝壳海滩，这些海滩呈现出一系列的海拔高度。他阅读了莱尔的第二卷，并接受了它关于物种“创造中心”的观点，但他的发现和理论挑战了莱尔关于物种顺利延续和灭绝的观点。

On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.

HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.]]

英国皇家海军贝格尔号考察了南美洲的海岸，达尔文从地质学和大型哺乳动物灭绝的角度提出了理论

Three Fuegians on board had been seized during the first Beagle voyage, then during a year in England were educated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at Tierra del Fuego he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals. He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.

在贝格尔号的第一次航行中，船上的三名火地岛人被扣押，然后在英国接受了一年的传教士教育。达尔文发现他们友好文明，然而在19世纪火地群岛，他遇到了“可怜的、堕落的野蛮人” ，这些野蛮人与家养动物截然不同。他仍然相信，尽管存在这种多样性，所有的人类都与一个共同的起源和改善文明的潜力相关。与他的科学家朋友不同，他现在认为人类和动物之间没有不可逾越的鸿沟。一年过去了，这项任务被放弃了。这个他们取名为杰米 · 巴顿的富伊格人过着和其他土著人一样的生活，有一个妻子，并且不想回到英国。

As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.

Three Fuegians on board had been seized during the first Beagle voyage, then during a year in England were educated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at Tierra del Fuego he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals. He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.

Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.

1835年，达尔文在智利经历了一次地震，看到了陆地刚刚被抬高的迹象，包括在高潮之上搁浅的贻贝床。在安第斯山脉的高处，他看到了海贝，还有一些生长在沙滩上的树木化石。他的理论是，随着陆地的上升，海洋岛屿下沉，周围的珊瑚礁逐渐形成环状珊瑚礁。

Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.

On the geologically new Galápagos Islands, Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food. In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work. He found the Aborigines "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.

在新发现的地质科隆群岛上，达尔文寻找野生动物与古老的“创世中心”相联系的证据，发现嘲鸫与智利的嘲鸫有联系，但在岛屿之间却有所不同。他听说，龟甲形状的细微变化可以显示它们来自哪个岛屿，但即使在吃了带上船作为食物的乌龟之后，也无法收集它们。在澳大利亚，有袋动物鼠袋鼠和鸭嘴兽看起来是如此不同寻常，以至于达尔文认为这几乎是两个不同的造物主在起作用。他发现土著居民“性情温和，生活愉快” ，并指出他们的消耗欧洲定居。

On the geologically new Galápagos Islands, Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food. In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work. He found the Aborigines "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.

FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.

菲茨罗伊调查了科科斯群岛(Keeling)的环礁是如何形成的，这项调查支持了达尔文的理论。达尔文的日记最终被重写为自然历史的第三卷。

FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account. Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.

In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".

在南非的开普敦，达尔文和菲茨罗伊遇到了 John Herschel，他最近写信给 Lyell 称赞他的均变论是开启了大胆的思考，关于“神秘的奥秘，其他物种替代灭绝的物种”是“与奇迹过程截然不同的自然现象”。

When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine". He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".

当船驶回家时，达尔文在整理笔记时写道，如果他对知更鸟、乌龟和福克兰狼日益增长的怀疑是正确的，“这些事实会破坏物种的稳定性” ，然后谨慎地在“破坏”之前加上“会”。他后来写道，这些事实“在我看来似乎有些物种起源”。

In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".

When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine". He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".

Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory

George Richmond.]]

[乔治 · 里士满]

While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific elite. Portrait by George Richmond.

By the time Darwin returned to England, he was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by publishing a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters for select naturalists. On 2 October 1836 the ship anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and who agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being promoted and encouraged through the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.

当达尔文回到英国时，他已经是科学界的名人，因为在1835年12月，亨斯洛通过出版一本达尔文的地质学通讯小册子，为选定的自然学家们树立了他以前的学生的声誉。1836年10月2日，这艘船停泊在康沃尔郡的法尔茅斯。达尔文立即乘长途汽车前往什鲁斯伯里拜访他的家人和亲戚。然后他匆忙赶到剑桥去见亨斯洛，亨斯洛建议他寻找可以为达尔文的动物收藏编目的博物学家，并同意采集植物标本。达尔文的父亲组织了投资，使他的儿子成为了一名自费的绅士科学家。达尔文兴奋地在伦敦各机构周围游走，寻找专家来描述这些收藏。当时的英国动物学家有大量的工作积压，因为自然历史的收集工作在大英帝国得到了推广和鼓励。

By the time Darwin returned to England, he was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by publishing a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters for select naturalists. On 2 October 1836 the ship anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and who agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being promoted and encouraged through the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.

Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.

10月29日，Charles Lyell 急切地第一次见到了达尔文，并很快把他介绍给了后起之秀的解剖学家 Richard Owen，他拥有英国皇家外科学院 Royal College of Surgeons of England 的设备来研究达尔文收集的骨骼化石。欧文的惊人发现包括其他已经灭绝的巨型地懒，还有巨型树懒，这是一具几乎完整的骨架，属于不知名的食人兽，还有一个像河马大小的啮齿类动物的头骨，名字叫毒齿龙，形似一只巨型水豚。这些盔甲碎片实际上来自 Glyptodon，正如达尔文最初想象的那样，是一种巨大的犰狳样生物。

Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought. These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.

In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal. He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.

12月中旬，达尔文在剑桥住下，组织收集工作并重写他的日记。他写了他的第一篇论文，显示南美洲的陆地面积正在缓慢上升，在 Lyell 的热情支持下，他于1837年1月4日将论文读给了青草湖(韩国)。同一天，他向动物学会提交了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家 John Gould 很快宣布，加拉帕戈斯群岛的鸟类实际上是十二种独立的雀科鸟类，达尔文曾认为它们是黑鸟、“雀喙”和雀科鸟类的混合体。2月17日，达尔文当选为地质学会理事会成员，莱尔的主席讲话介绍了欧文对达尔文化石的研究结果，强调物种的地理连续性，以支持他的均变论思想。

In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal. He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.

Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage, who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order, but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species. The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.

三月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，比如查尔斯 · 巴贝奇，他把上帝描述为法律的程序员。达尔文和他自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟住在一起，伊拉斯谟是辉格党的一员，也是作家哈丽雅特 · 马丁诺的密友，马尔萨斯倡导了备受争议的辉格党穷人法改革，以阻止福利制度造成人口过剩和更多的贫困。作为一名一神论者，她欢迎物种变异的根本含义，这种变异是由格兰特和受杰弗罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推动的。对于捍卫社会秩序的英国圣公会教徒来说，蜕变是一个诅咒，但是有声望的科学家公开讨论这个话题，而且人们对约翰 · 赫歇尔赞扬莱尔的方法作为一种找到新物种起源的自然原因的方法的信件有着广泛的兴趣。这两种美洲鸵也是不同的物种，3月14日达尔文宣布了它们向南分布的变化。

Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage, who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order, but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species.

evolutionary tree.]]

[进化树]

By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms.

到了1837年3月中旬，也就是他回到英格兰仅仅六个月之后，达尔文在他的《红色笔记》中推测“一个物种确实会变成另一个”的可能性，以此来解释现存物种如美洲鸵的地理分布，以及已灭绝的物种如奇怪的哺乳动物 Macrauchenia 的地理分布，这种物种类似于美洲驼的巨型原驼。大约在七月中旬，他在他的“ b”笔记本中记录了他对生命周期和代际变化的想法ーー解释了他在加拉帕戈斯龟、嘲鸟和美洲鸵身上观察到的变化。他勾勒出了分支血统，然后是单一进化树的系谱分支，其中“说一种动物比另一种更高级是荒谬的” ，抛弃了拉马克关于独立血统进化到更高级形态的观点。

Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was also in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands. The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.

In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his "B" notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first evolutionary tree.

By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms.

While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £}} in -2}}. He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher. As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.

在深入研究转化的过程中，达尔文陷入了更多的工作中。在重写期刊的过程中，他开始编辑和出版自己收藏的专家报告，在亨斯洛的帮助下，他获得了1000英镑的财政部拨款，资助这本多卷本的《英国医学会航海动物学》(Voyage of h.m.s.)。Beagle，相当于 about # } in-2}的总和。他把资金扩大到包括他计划出版的地质学书籍，并同意与出版商进行不切实际的约会。随着维多利亚时代的开始，达尔文继续写他的日记，并在1837年8月开始修改印刷校样。

Overwork, illness, and marriage

As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.

由于达尔文在压力下工作，他的健康受到了影响。9月20日，他”心悸不适” ，因此医生敦促他”停止一切工作” ，在乡下生活几个星期。在访问什鲁斯伯里之后，他加入了在斯塔福德郡梅尔霍尔的韦奇伍德亲戚们，但是他发现他们太热衷于他的旅行故事，以至于不能给他足够的休息。他迷人、聪明、有教养的表妹艾玛 · 韦奇伍德，比达尔文大九个月，正在照顾他生病的姨妈。他的叔叔约西亚指出了一块地面，那里的煤渣已经消失在壤土之下，他认为这可能是蚯蚓的工作，启发了关于蚯蚓在土壤形成中的作用的“一个新的重要理论” ，达尔文于1837年11月1日在地质学会上提出了这个理论。

See also: Charles Darwin's health

While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £模板:Inflation in 2022.模板:Inflation-fn He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher. As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.

Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

达尔文选择了和他的表妹结婚[艾玛 · 韦奇伍德]

As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.

William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838. Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers. Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates. He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.

威廉 · 惠威尔推动达尔文担任地质学会秘书的职务。在最初拒绝这项工作后，他于1838年3月接受了这个职位。尽管撰写和编辑贝格尔号的报告是一件苦差事，但达尔文在转化方面取得了显著的进步，他抓住每一个机会向博物学专家和非传统的、在人工选择有实际经验的人，比如农民和鸽子爱好者提出质疑。随着时间的推移，他的研究从他的亲戚和孩子，家庭管家，邻居，殖民地居民和以前的船友那里获得信息。他从一开始就把人类纳入自己的推测之中，1838年3月28日在动物园看到一只猩猩时，他注意到了猩猩幼稚的行为。

Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.

这种紧张造成了严重的后果，到6月份，他已经连续卧床数天，出现了胃病、头痛和心脏病症状。在他的余生中，他反复出现胃痛、呕吐、严重疖子、心悸、颤抖和其他症状，特别是在有压力的时候，比如参加会议或社交拜访。达尔文患病的原因尚不清楚，治疗的尝试也只是昙花一现。

William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838. Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers. Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates. He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.

On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.

6月23日，他休息了一下，去苏格兰进行“地质考察”。他在一个风和日丽的日子里拜访了格伦 · 罗伊村，看到平行的“公路”在三个高度切入山坡。他后来发表了他的观点，认为这些是海洋抬升的海滩，但不得不接受它们是原冰川湖的海岸线。

The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.

Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.

在完全康复后，他于7月回到什鲁斯伯里。他习惯于草草记下动物饲养的日常笔记，在两张纸上潦草地写下关于婚姻、职业和前途的杂乱想法，其中一张写着“结婚”和“不结婚”。“玛丽”的优势包括“老年时有忠实的伴侣和朋友... ... 总之比养狗好” ，而不是“买书的钱少”和“时间的可怕损失”在决定结婚之后，他和父亲商量了一下，然后在7月29日去看望了他的表妹艾玛。他没有抽出时间来求婚，但他不顾父亲的劝告，提到了自己关于蜕变的想法。

On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.

Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones." This would result in the formation of new species. As he later wrote in his Autobiography:

1838年9月28日，他注意到这一论断，即人类的“人口，如果不加以控制，每25年就会翻一番，或者说以几何比例增加一倍” ，这是一个等比数列，因此人口很快就会超过食物供应，即所谓的马尔萨斯灾难。达尔文已经做好准备，将其与德 · 坎多勒的植物“物种战争”和野生动物之间的生存竞争相比较，解释了一个物种的数量是如何保持大致稳定的。由于物种总是在现有资源之外繁殖，有利的变异将使生物体更容易存活，并将变异传递给后代，而不利的变异将会消失。他写道，“所有这些楔形的最终原因，必须是理清适当的结构，并使其适应变化” ，因此，“有人可能会说，有一种力量，就像十万个楔形，试图强行进入每一种适应结构，进入自然经济的缺口，或者更确切地说，通过挤出较弱的缺口而形成缺口。”这将导致新物种的形成。正如他后来在《自传》中写道:

Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.

Malthus and natural selection

Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones." This would result in the formation of new species. As he later wrote in his Autobiography:

By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected", thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory". He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding. While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).

到了12月中旬，达尔文看到了一个相似之处，农民在人工选择选择最好的股票，马尔萨斯自然选择机会变异，使“新获得的结构的每一部分是完全实用和完善的” ，认为这种比较“一个美丽的部分我的理论”。他后来称他的理论为自然选择，与他称之为人工选择的“人工选择”相类似。当他在伦敦找房子的时候，病情还在继续，爱玛写信催促他休息一下，几乎是预言性地写道: “所以，亲爱的查理，在我能和你一起照顾你之前，不要再生病了。”他在 Gower Street 找到了他们所谓的“金刚鹦鹉小屋”(因为里面的装饰俗气) ，然后在圣诞节期间把他的“博物馆”搬了进去。1839年1月24日，达尔文被选为英国皇家学会会员。

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On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.

1月29日，达尔文和艾玛 · 韦奇伍德在梅尔举行了英国圣公会为一神教举行的婚礼，然后立即赶上了去伦敦和他们新家的火车。

By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected", thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory". He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.

On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife. While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).

Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin

1842年，达尔文和他的长子，[威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文]

On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.

Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.

达尔文现在有了自然选择理论的框架，他的研究包括广泛的动植物实验人工选择，发现物种不固定的证据，并调查许多详细的想法来完善和证实他的理论。

Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research

When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".

菲茨罗伊的《叙述》在1839年5月出版时，达尔文的《日记与评论》获得了巨大的成功，成为当年晚些时候出版的第三卷。早在1842年，达尔文就他的想法写给查尔斯 · 莱尔，莱尔指出他的盟友“否认看到每一种物种的开始”。

Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin

Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection. To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September. On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder". Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."

经过三年多的研究，达尔文的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书于1842年5月出版，这本书是关于他的珊瑚礁形成理论的。为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人在九月份搬到了乡下的唐人街。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克提到了他的理论，他以戏剧性的幽默写道: “这就像承认谋杀一样。”。胡克回答说: “在我看来，可能在不同的地点有一系列的产品，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到你认为这种变化是如何发生的，因为目前我对这个问题还没有什么看法。”

Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, and in particular, the barnacles.

Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House was his usual "Thinking Path".

达尔文在[ Down House 是他惯用的“思考之路”]的“沙行”

When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".

By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.

到了7月，达尔文已经把他的“草图”扩展成了一篇230页的“论文” ，如果他过早地死去，他的研究成果将会被扩展。11月，匿名出版的轰动一时的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹引起了人们对蜕变的广泛兴趣。达尔文对其业余的地质学和动物学嗤之以鼻，但仔细审查了自己的论点。争论爆发了，尽管被科学家轻蔑地驳回，它仍然卖得很好。

Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection. To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September. On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder". Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."

Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.

达尔文在1846年完成了他的第三本地质学著作。现在，他对海洋无脊椎动物又有了新的兴趣和专长，可以追溯到他和格兰特一起上学的时候，他解剖和分类航行中收集的藤壶，欣赏美丽的结构，思考与相关结构的比较。1847年，胡克阅读了《论文》 ，并给达尔文提供了他所需要的冷静的批评性反馈，但他不愿承诺，并质疑达尔文反对继续创造行为的立场。

文件:Darwins Thinking Path.JPG

Darwin's "sandwalk" at Down House was his usual "Thinking Path".

In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.

为了改善慢性病的健康状况，达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯 · 格利医生位于莫尔文的水疗中心，他惊奇地发现水疗有一些好处。后来，在1851年，他的宝贝女儿安妮病倒了，再次唤醒了他的恐惧，他担心他的病可能是遗传性的，在一系列的危机之后，安妮去世了。

By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely. In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.

In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist. In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library. He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".

在八年的藤壶(Cirripedia)研究工作中，达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性” ，表明身体部位略有改变，为了适应新的环境，发挥了不同的功能。在一些属中，他发现了微小的雄性寄生在雌雄同体上，显示了不同性别进化的中间阶段。1853年，它为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章，并使他成为享有盛誉的生物学家。1854年，他成为伦敦林奈学会图书馆的会员，通过邮政途径进入图书馆。他开始重新评估自己的物种理论，并在11月意识到后代性格的差异可以解释为他们适应了“自然经济中的多样化地方”。

Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.

In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy. Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.

Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."

查尔斯 · 达尔文，1855年46岁，当时正致力于发表他的[自然选择]理论。他在给胡克的信中谈到了这幅肖像画，“如果我的表情真像照片上那样糟糕，我怎么会只有一个朋友呢? ”]

By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."

1856年初，达尔文开始研究卵子和种子是否能够通过海水传播到大洋中，从而存活下来。胡克越来越怀疑物种是固定不变的传统观点，但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫胥黎仍然坚决反对物种的变异。莱尔被达尔文的猜测所吸引，却没有意识到其程度。当他读到阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士的一篇论文《论规范新物种引进的法则》时，他发现了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他出版论文以建立优先顺序。虽然达尔文没有看到威胁，但1856年5月14日他开始写一篇短文。为了找到难题的答案，他反复地坚持着，并且他扩展了自己的计划，写了一本名为《自然选择》的“物种大书” ，其中包括了他的“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士在内的世界各地的自然学家那里获得信息和标本。在1857年中期，他增加了一个章节标题: “理论应用于人类种族” ，但没有添加关于这个主题的文本。1857年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨 · 格雷提交了一份详细的自然选择理论纲要，其中包括一份省略了人类起源和性选择的自然选择理论摘要。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的一封信，询问这本书是否会考察人类起源。他回应说，他会回避这个话题，“这么多偏见” ，同时鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说，“我比你走得更远。”

In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist. In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library. He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".

Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace, and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.

1858年6月18日，达尔文收到了华莱士关于自然选择的论文，他的书只写了一部分。达尔文对自己被“抢先”一步感到震惊，于是按照华莱士的要求，在当天把这本书寄给了莱尔。尽管华莱士没有要求出版，达尔文还是建议他把这本书寄给华莱士选择的任何一家期刊。他的家庭陷入了危机，村里的孩子死于猩红热，他把这件事交给了他的朋友们。经过一些讨论，由于没有可靠的方式让华莱士、莱尔和胡克参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林奈学会联合发表《物种形成多样性的趋势》和《通过自然选择的方法使多样性和物种永久化》。6月28日晚，达尔文的婴儿儿子在几乎一个星期的严重疾病之后死于猩红热，他心烦意乱无法出席。

Publication of the theory of natural selection

There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.

很少有人立即注意到这一理论的宣布; 林奈学会主席在1859年5月说，这一年没有任何革命性的发现。只有一篇评论激怒了达尔文，让他后来回忆起来; 都柏林的塞缪尔 · 豪顿教授声称“他们所有新的东西都是假的，真的东西都是旧的”。达尔文挣扎了13个月才写出了他的“大书”的摘要，他身体不好，但他的科学朋友不断地鼓励他。莱尔安排约翰 · 默里出版这本书。

Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."

By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."

On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859. In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections. In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals. Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races. He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." His theory is simply stated in the introduction:

1859年11月22日，《物种起源书出人意料地大受欢迎，全部1250本书获得超额认购。在这本书中，达尔文提出了“一个长的论点”的详细的观察，推论和考虑预期的反对意见。为了证明共同血统，他包括了人类和其他哺乳动物之间同源性的证据。在概述了性选择之后，他暗示性选择可以解释人类种族之间的差异。他避免明确讨论人类起源，但暗示了他的工作的意义与句子: “光将投掷在人类的起源和他的历史。”他的理论在导言中简单地陈述了:

Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace, and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.

At the end of the book he concluded that:

在这本书的结尾，他总结道:

There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.

On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859. In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections. In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.模板:Sfn模板:Ref label Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races.模板:Ref label He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."模板:Ref label His theory is simply stated in the introduction:

The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.

在这本书的前五版中，最后一个词是“进化”的唯一变体。当时的进化论与其他概念有关，最常见的是与胚胎学的发展有关，达尔文在1871年第一次使用进化这个词，然后在1872年将其添加到第六版《人类的由来物种起源。

As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.

At the end of the book he concluded that:

During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866.

在1868年达尔文家族在她家度假期间怀特岛的别墅，朱莉娅·玛格丽特·卡梅伦拍摄的肖像显示浓密的胡须达尔文生长在1862年和1866年之间。

There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.

An 1871 caricature following publication of [[The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory. Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide. The book did not explicitly discuss human origins, The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers. Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin, but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.

一幅1871年的漫画出版后[[人类的由来是典型的许多显示与猿的身体，确定他在流行文化作为主要作者的进化论达尔文。虽然达尔文的疾病使他远离公共辩论，他热切地审查科学的反应，评论新闻剪报，评论，文章，讽刺和漫画，并与世界各地的同事就此通信。这本书没有明确地讨论人类的起源，第一篇评论问道: “如果一只猴子已经变成了一个人——什么不可能变成一个人? ”并说这应该留给神学家，因为这对普通读者来说太危险了。在早期的积极回应中，赫胥黎的评论抨击了赫胥黎试图推翻的科学机构领袖理查德 · 欧文。今年四月，欧文的评论攻击了达尔文的朋友，并且居高临下地驳斥了他的观点，这激怒了达尔文，但是欧文和其他人开始提倡超自然引导进化论的观点。帕特里克 · 马修引起了人们对他1831年的书的注意，书中有一个简短的附录，提出了自然选择导致新物种的概念，但他还没有发展出这个想法。

The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.

The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology. The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.

英国国教会的反应褒贬不一。但是自由派的神职人员将自然选择理解为上帝设计的工具，神职人员认为自然选择是查尔斯·金斯莱的崇高理念。1860年，七位自由主义的英国圣公会神学家出版了《论文与评论》 ，转移了神职人员对达尔文的注意力，其思想包括更高层次的批评被教会当局斥为异端。在书中，贝登鲍威尔认为奇迹破坏了上帝的法则，因此相信奇迹是无神论的，并赞扬“达尔文先生精湛的卷本，支持自然界自我进化力量的伟大原则”。阿萨 · 格雷与达尔文讨论了目的论，达尔文引进并分发了格雷关于神导演化论的小册子《自然选择并非与自然神学不一致。其中最著名的对抗发生在牛津大辩论的一次公共英国科学协会会议上，牛津塞缪尔·韦伯佛斯的主教虽然不反对物种变异，但反对达尔文的解释和人类起源于猿类的说法。约瑟夫 · 胡克强烈支持达尔文，而托马斯 · 赫胥黎则反驳说，他宁愿从猿类进化而来，也不愿意成为滥用自己天赋的人，这象征着科学对宗教的胜利。

Responses to publication

Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,

甚至达尔文的密友格雷、胡克、赫胥黎和莱尔也表达了各种保留意见，但给予了强烈支持，其他许多人也是如此，特别是年轻的博物学家。格雷和莱尔寻求与信仰的和解，而赫胥黎描绘了宗教和科学之间的两极分化。他在竞选中顽强地反对神职人员的教育权威,

During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cottage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866.

An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory.

Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection. Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864. That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas". By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.

达尔文主义成为一场涵盖了广泛的进化论思想的运动。1863年，莱尔的《人类古代的地质证据》一书使史前史广为流传，尽管他对进化论的谨慎态度令达尔文大失所望。几个星期后，赫胥黎的《人类在自然界的地位证据》表明，从解剖学角度来看，人类就是猿类，然后，亨利·沃尔特·贝兹的《亚马逊河上的博物学家》为自然选择提供了经验证明。游说给达尔文带来了英国最高的科学荣誉，皇家学会的科普利奖章，该奖章于1864年11月3日颁发。那一天，赫胥黎举行了第一次会议，后来成为有影响力的“ x 俱乐部” ，致力于“科学，纯粹和自由，不受宗教教条的限制”。十年后，大多数科学家都同意进化论确实存在，但只有少数科学家支持达尔文的观点，认为主要的机制是自然选择。

The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide. The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,模板:Ref label but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made. The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers. Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin, but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.

The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture. Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.

物种起源》被翻译成多种语言，成为一本主要的科学著作，吸引了各行各业深思熟虑的注意力，包括蜂拥而至参加赫胥黎讲座的“劳动人民”。达尔文的理论也与当时的各种运动产生了共鸣，并成为流行文化的一个重要组成部分。漫画家模仿动物祖先的传统，展示人类与动物的特征，在英国，这些滑稽的图像服务于普及达尔文的理论在一个没有威胁的方式。1862年生病时，达尔文开始蓄胡须，1866年，当他再次出现在公众面前时，他作为一个猿人的漫画帮助确定了所有形式的进化论与达尔文主义。

The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology. The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.

By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness.

到了1878年，一个越来越有名的达尔文患病多年。

Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education, aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen.

Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson

查尔斯 · 达尔文给[约翰 · 伯顿-桑德森]的信

Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection. Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864. That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas". By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.

尽管在他生命的最后二十二年里反复发病，达尔文的工作仍在继续。在出版了他的理论的物种起源一年的摘要之后，他继续进行实验，研究，并写下了他的“大书”。他涵盖了人类从早期动物的进化，包括社会和心智能力的进化，以及解释野生动物的装饰美和多样化进入创新的植物研究。

The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time模板:Ref label and became a key fixture of popular culture.模板:Ref label Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.

Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants. Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism. Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.

对昆虫授粉的调查在1861年引发了对野生兰花的新研究，显示了它们的花适应性，以吸引特定的蛾子到每个品种，并确保交叉受精。1862年，《兰花受精》第一次详细展示了自然选择的力量，用以解释复杂的生态关系，并作出了可检验的预测。随着他的健康状况日益恶化，他躺在病床上，房间里摆满了创造性的实验品，用来追踪攀缘植物的活动轨迹。欣赏他的游客包括恩斯特 · 海克尔，他是达尔文主义的狂热支持者，结合了拉马克主义和歌德的理想主义。华莱士仍然支持，尽管他逐渐转向唯心论。

Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany

By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness.

Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.

达尔文的《动物和植物在家养下的变异(1868年)是他计划好的“大书”的第一部分，其中包括他试图解释遗传的泛生论的失败假说。尽管规模庞大，但它一开始销路很好，并被翻译成多种语言。他写了第二部分的大部分，关于自然选择，但在他有生之年，这部分一直没有出版。

Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson

See also: Orchids to Variation, Descent of Man to Emotions, and Insectivorous Plants to Worms

Punchs almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.]]

1882年出版的 Punchs 年鉴，在达尔文去世前不久出版，描述了他从混乱到维多利亚绅士的进化过程，书名是《人不过是一条虫》

Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes. His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked." His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."

莱尔已经普及了史前人类，赫胥黎也证明了解剖学上的人类是猿类。他在1872年出版的《人与动物的情感表达》一书中扩展了他对图像的研究，这本书是第一批以印刷照片为特色的书籍之一，其中讨论了人类心理学的进化及其与动物行为的连续性。事实证明，这两本书都很受欢迎，达尔文的观点得到普遍认可，这给他留下了深刻印象，他说: “每个人都在谈论这本书，却不感到震惊。”他的结论是: “这个人拥有所有的高尚品质，对最卑贱的人怀有同情之心，他的仁慈不仅延伸到其他人身上，而且延伸到最卑微的生物身上，他那神一般的智慧渗透到太阳系的运动和构造之中ーー具有所有这些崇高的力量ーー人的身体结构仍然带有他卑微出身的不可磨灭的印记。”

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.

His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work. His botanical work was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

他的进化相关的实验和调查导致了关于兰花的书籍，食虫植物，植物王国的交叉和自体受精的影响，不同形式的花对同一物种的植物，以及植物运动的力量。他继续从世界各地的科学记者那里收集信息和交换意见，包括玛丽 · 特莱特，他鼓励她坚持她的科学工作。他的植物学著作在19世纪末20世纪初被 Grant Allen 和 h. g. Wells 等不同的作家解读和普及，并且[ http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract?frompage=online&aid=10359900&fulltexttype=ra&fileid=s0007087416000352帮助改变了植物科学]。在他的最后一本书中，他回到了通过蠕虫的行动蔬菜霉菌的形成。

Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants. Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism. Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.

Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.

Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster Abbey

约翰 · 赫歇尔和查尔斯 · 达尔文墓。[西敏寺]

Punch模板:'s almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.

In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure". It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic Chagas disease. This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "Kissing Bug" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835; and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.

1882年，他被诊断出患有所谓的“心绞痛” ，这意味着冠状动脉血栓和心脏病。在他去世时，医生诊断为“心绞痛发作”和“心力衰竭”。据推测，达尔文可能患有慢性恰加斯病。这种推测是基于达尔文写的一篇日志，描述他于1835年在门多萨被“接吻虫”咬伤，以及他表现出的一系列临床症状，包括慢性恰加斯病的标志性心脏病。在公众和议会的请愿之后，William Spottiswoode (皇家学会主席)安排了达尔文的葬礼，葬在西敏寺，靠近 John Herschel 和 Isaac Newton 的地方。葬礼于4月26日星期三举行，参加葬礼的有数千人，包括家人、朋友、科学家、哲学家和政要。

Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes. With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial classification, while emphasising that humans are all one species. His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked." His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."

His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work. His botanical work模板:Ref label was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]]

伦敦国家肖像馆学院的 John Collier

Death and funeral

By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species. Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician, finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. He gave the theory a mathematical footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

到达尔文去世的时候，他和他的同事已经说服了大多数科学家相信进化论是通过修改的后裔是正确的，他被认为是一个伟大的科学家，彻底改变了思想。1909年6月，尽管当时很少有人同意他的观点，认为“自然选择是主要的但不是唯一的改造方式” ，但是来自世界各地的400多名官员和科学家在剑桥会面，纪念他的百年诞辰和物种起源50周年，向他表示敬意。20世纪初，科学家们提出了各种各样的进化机制，这些机制最终被证明是站不住脚的。英国统计学家 Ronald Fisher 在1918年和他1930年出版的《自然选择的遗传理论期间，最终将孟德尔遗传学和自然选择结合起来。他给这个理论提供了数学基础，并且带来了广泛的科学共识---- 自然选择是进化的基本机制，从而奠定了群体遗传学和现代进化综论的基础。霍尔丹和塞沃尔 · 赖特，他们为现代的辩论和理论的完善设定了参照系。附近的安第斯山脉的达尔文山被命名以庆祝达尔文的25岁生日。1839年，当贝格尔号考察澳大利亚时，达尔文的朋友约翰 · 洛特 · 斯托克斯发现了一个天然港口，船长威克姆将其命名为达尔文港: 附近的一个定居点在1911年被重新命名为达尔文，并成为澳大利亚北领地的首府。

See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms

Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster Abbey

Unveiling of the Darwin Statue outside the former Shrewsbury School building in 1897

1897年，达尔文雕像在前什鲁斯伯里学校大楼外揭幕

In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure". It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic Chagas disease. This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "Kissing Bug" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835; and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease. Exhuming Darwin's body is likely necessary to definitively determine his state of infection by detecting DNA of infecting parasite, T. cruzi, that causes Chagas disease.

Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University, is named after the Darwin family.

达尔文学院是剑桥大学的一所研究生院，以达尔文家族的名字命名。

He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you". He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.

In 2008–09, the Swedish band The Knife, in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and The Origin of Species, titled Tomorrow, in a Year. The show toured European theatres in 2010.

2008-09年，瑞典乐队 The Knife 与丹麦表演团体 Hotel Pro Forma 以及其他来自丹麦、瑞典和美国的音乐家合作，创作了一部关于达尔文和物种起源生平的歌剧，名为《一年中的明天》。该剧于2010年在欧洲剧院巡回演出。

Legacy

In 1881 Darwin was an eminent figure, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous effect on many fields of science. Copy of a portrait by John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery, London.

{ | class = toccolours style = float: right; clear: right; font-size: 85% ; width: 33% ; margin-left: 2em; By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species. Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician, finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. He gave the theory a mathematical footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.

Commemoration

See also: List of things named after Charles Darwin and List of taxa described by Charles Darwin

During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

Unveiling of the Darwin Statue outside the former Shrewsbury School building in 1897

William Erasmus	27 December 1839 –	8 September 1914 威廉 · 伊拉斯谟 | style = text-align: right; | 1839年12月27日-| 1914年9月8日
Anne Elizabeth	2 March 1841 –	23 April 1851 1841年3月2日-1851年4月23日 Main article: Commemoration of Charles Darwin
Mary Eleanor	23 September 1842 –	16 October 1842	| style = text-align: right; | 23 September 1842-| 16 October 1842 文件:Darwinnhmstatue.JPG Statue of Darwin in Natural History Museum, London
Henrietta Emma	25 September 1843 –	17 December 1927 1843年9月25日-1927年12月17日
George Howard	9 July 1845 –	7 December 1912 乔治 · 霍华德 | | style = text-align: right; | 9 July 1845-| | 1912年12月7日 Stephen Heard identified 389 species that have been named after Darwin, and there are at least 9 genera. In one example, the group of tanagers related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.
Elizabeth	8 July 1847 –	8 June 1926 1847年7月8日-1926年6月8日 Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The Linnean Society of London has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the Darwin–Wallace Medal since 1908. Darwin Day has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species.
Francis	16 August 1848 –	19 September 1925 1848年8月16日-1925年9月19日 Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his portrait printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes printed along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bank of England.
Leonard	15 January 1850 –	26 March 1943 1850年1月15日-1943年3月26日 A life-size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London.
Horace	13 May 1851 –	29 September 1928	style = text-align: right; | 13 May 1851-| | 29 September 1928 A seated statue of Darwin, unveiled 1897, stands in front of Shrewsbury Library, the building that used to house Shrewsbury School, which Darwin attended as a boy. Another statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in the grounds of Christ's College, Cambridge.
Charles	6 December 1856 –	28 June 1858 1856年12月6日 | 1858年6月28日 Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University, is named after the Darwin family.

|}

In 2008–09, the Swedish band The Knife, in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and The Origin of Species, titled Tomorrow, in a Year. The show toured European theatres in 2010.

The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children. distinguished as astronomer, botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted. Another son, Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.

达尔文夫妇有十个孩子: 其中两个在婴儿时期夭折，安妮在十岁时去世，这对她的父母产生了毁灭性的影响。查尔斯是一位尽职尽责的父亲，对孩子们异乎寻常地关心。分别是天文学家，植物学家和土木工程师。三人都被封为爵士。他的另一个儿子伦纳德后来成为了一名军人、政治家、经济学家、优生学家，同时也是统计学家和进化生物学家罗纳德 · 费舍尔的导师。

Children

See also: Darwin–Wedgwood family

Annie died. By then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church.]] 安妮死了。那时他对基督教的信仰已经减少，他已经不再去教堂了 Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone, whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage. These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century, Darwins interaction with Yaghans (Fuegians) such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS Beagle had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of "Fuegian savages". While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of Yaghan detailing 32-thousand words. 达尔文对社会和政治问题的看法反映了他的时代和社会地位。他生长在一个辉格党改革家庭，像他的叔叔约西亚 · 韦奇伍德一样，支持选举改革和奴隶解放。达尔文强烈反对奴隶制，认为英国工厂工人或仆人的工作条件没有问题。1826年，他从获得自由的奴隶约翰 · 埃德蒙斯通那里学到了制作动物标本的课程，他一直回忆说埃德蒙斯通是“一个非常和蔼、聪明的人” ，这强化了他的信念，即黑人拥有同样的感情，可以像其他种族的人一样聪明。他对他在贝格尔号航行中遇到的当地人采取了同样的态度。这种态度在19世纪20年代的英国并不罕见，就像它震惊到访的美国人一样。上世纪中叶，英国社会开始更加生动地正视种族差异，达尔文与雅格汉斯(Fuegians) ，如贝格尔号第二次航行期间的杰米 · 巴顿(Jemmy Button)的交往，对他的原始民族观产生了深远的影响。在他抵达火地群岛时，他对“富伊加野蛮人”做了一个生动的描述。虽然对 Yaghan 文化感兴趣，但达尔文并没有欣赏到他们深厚的生态学知识和复杂的宇宙学，直到19世纪50年代，他查阅了一本详细记载了3.2万字的 Yaghan 词典。 He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book The Sexes Throughout Nature. 他认为男性优于女性是性选择的结果，安托瓦内特 · 布朗 · 布莱克威尔在她1875年出版的《自然界的性别》一书中对这一观点提出了质疑。 Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals. Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883. After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies that went against his humanitarian principles. Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory. 达尔文被他同父异母的表兄弗朗西斯 · 高尔顿(Francis Galton)于1865年提出的观点所吸引。高尔顿的观点是，对遗传的统计分析表明，人类的道德和精神特征可以被遗传，动物繁殖的原则可以适用于人类。在20世纪90年代人类的由来，达尔文指出，帮助弱者生存和建立家庭可能会失去自然选择的好处，但他警告说，拒绝这样的援助会危及同情的本能，“我们本性中最高贵的部分” ，以及教育等因素可能更为重要。当高尔顿提出，发表研究成果可以鼓励“天赋异禀者”的“种姓”内的异族通婚时，达尔文预见到了实际困难，并认为这是“唯一可行的，但我害怕乌托邦式的改善人类的程序计划” ，宁愿简单地宣传遗传的重要性，把决定权留给个人。弗朗西斯 · 高尔顿在1883年将这一研究领域命名为“优生学”。达尔文去世后，他的理论被引用来促进优生政策，这与他的人道主义原则背道而驰。当时进化论被认为具有社会意义，赫伯特 · 斯宾塞1851年的著作《社会静力学》以他的拉马克进化论为基础，提出了人类自由和个人自由的观点。 Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "survival of the fittest" as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's polygenistic ideas of human development. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species. Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature. 1859年《物种起源》出版后不久，批评家们嘲笑他对生存斗争的描述是当时英国工业资本主义的马尔萨斯式辩护。达尔文主义这个术语被用来形容其他人的进化论思想，包括斯宾塞的自由市场进步的“适者生存” ，恩斯特 · 海克尔的人类发展的多元论思想。作家们利用自然选择论证了各种各样的、往往相互矛盾的意识形态，比如自由放任、狗咬狗的资本主义、殖民主义和帝国主义。然而，达尔文的整体自然观包括“一个人对另一个人的依赖” ，因此和平主义者、社会主义者、自由主义社会改革者以及彼得 · 克鲁泡特金等无政府主义者强调合作的价值高于物种内部的斗争。达尔文自己坚持认为，社会政策不应简单地以自然界的斗争和选择概念为指导。 After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilisation laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute. 19世纪80年代以后，一场基于生物遗传学思想的优生学运动开始兴起，为了对其思想进行科学论证，达尔文主义的一些概念受到了关注。在英国，大多数人赞同达尔文关于自愿改善的谨慎观点，并试图鼓励那些具有“积极优生学”优良特征的人。在“达尔文主义的日蚀”期间，孟德尔遗传学为优生学提供了一个科学基础。消极优生学在美国、加拿大和澳大利亚很流行，美国的优生学引入了强制绝育法，其他几个国家紧随其后。随后，纳粹优生学使这一领域声名狼藉。 The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution. 自19世纪90年代以来，“社会达尔文主义”这个词并不常用，但在20世纪40年代成为一个贬义词，被理查德·霍夫施塔特用来攻击那些自由放任的保守主义者，比如反对改革和社会主义的威廉·萨姆纳。从那时起，它就被那些反对进化带来的道德后果的人用作一个滥用术语。

William Erasmus	27 December 1839 –	8 September 1914
Anne Elizabeth	2 March 1841 –	23 April 1851 Darwin's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England. He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution, and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs. 达尔文的家庭传统是不墨守成规的一教主义，而他的父亲和祖父是自由思想家，他的洗礼和寄宿学校是英格兰教会。他寻找“创造中心”来解释分配，但他看不到一个无所不能的神在所有的痛苦和苦难中所做的工作，例如姬蜂麻痹毛虫作为卵的活食。
Mary Eleanor	23 September 1842 –	16 October 1842 Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church, but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church. and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind". 达尔文和唐恩牧师约翰 · 布罗迪 · 英尼斯保持着密切的朋友关系，并继续在教堂的教区工作中发挥着领导作用，但从1849年左右开始，他会在星期天散步，而他的家人则去教堂。尽管对自己的宗教观点保持沉默，但在1879年，他写道: “我从来不是一个否认上帝存在的无神论者。- 我认为一般来说... ... 不可知论者是对我精神状态的最正确描述”。
Henrietta Emma	25 September 1843 –	17 December 1927
George Howard	9 July 1845 –	7 December 1912
Elizabeth	8 July 1847 –	8 June 1926
Francis	16 August 1848 –	19 September 1925
Leonard	15 January 1850 –	26 March 1943
Horace	13 May 1851 –	29 September 1928
Charles	6 December 1856 –	28 June 1858

The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children. Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood.

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He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of outcrossing in many species.模板:Sfn Despite his fears, most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers.

Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society, distinguished as astronomer, botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted. Another son, Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.

Views and opinions

Religious views

In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died. By then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church.

Darwin's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England. When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman, he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible. He learned John Herschel's science which, like William Paley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design. On board HMS Beagle, Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality. He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution, and suggested that the very similar antlions found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.

By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history, and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid. In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning. The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design, and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs. Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil.

Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church, but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church. He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist" and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".

The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.

. Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist, and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a medical student, he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in taxidermy.

.达尔文是著名的博物学家、地质学家、生物学家和作家。在担任医师助理和两年医学学生之后，他接受了牧师的教育; 他还接受了动物标本制作的培训。

Human society

Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone, whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage.模板:Sfn These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century, but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.模板:Ref label Darwins interaction with Yaghans (Fuegians) such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS Beagle had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of "Fuegian savages". This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans. While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of Yaghan detailing 32-thousand words. He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."

. Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.

.罗伯特 · 菲茨罗伊在这次圣经直译主义之旅后变得有名，但是在这个时候他对莱尔的想法产生了相当大的兴趣，他们在航行之前相遇了，当时莱尔要求在南美进行观测。菲茨罗伊在攀登巴塔哥尼亚的圣克鲁斯河时的日记中记录了他的观点，即平原是高耸的海滩，但是回来后，他又放弃了这些观点，因为他刚刚与一位非常虔诚的女士结婚。

He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book The Sexes Throughout Nature.

. In the section "Morphology" of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."

.在《物种起源章第十三章的“形态学”一节中，达尔文评论了人类和其他哺乳动物之间的骨骼同源模式，他写道: “还有什么比为抓握而形成的人的手、为挖掘而形成的鼹鼠的手、马的腿、海豚的桨和蝙蝠的翅膀，都应该按照同样的模式构造，并且应该包括同样的骨骼，在同样的相对位置更令人好奇呢? ”在最后一章: “人的手、蝙蝠的翅膀、海豚的鳍和马的腿的骨骼结构是一样的... ... 立刻用缓慢而连续的变化解释了下降理论。”

Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals. Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883.模板:Ref label After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies that went against his humanitarian principles.

.

.

In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."

在20世纪90年代物种起源，达尔文在他的结束语中提到了人类起源，他说: 在遥远的未来，我看到了更重要的研究的开放领域。心理学将建立在一个新的基础之上，即对各种心理力量和心理能力的必要获得。人类的起源和历史将被揭示出来。”在1874年第二版的序言中，他提到了第二点: “有几位批评家说，当我发现人类结构的许多细节无法通过自然选择来解释时，我发明了性选择; 然而，在《物种起源》第一版中，我对这一原则给出了相当清晰的概述，我在那里说它适用于人类。”

Evolutionary social movements

Caricature of Darwin from 1871 Vanity Fair

. See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."

.例如，见 Deborah m. De Simone 的 WILLA 第4卷，[ http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/desimone.html 吉尔曼与教育的女性化] : “ Gilman 与那一代成熟的思想家分享了许多基本的教育思想，这些思想家是在达尔文的《物种起源》导致的“智力混乱”时期成熟的。许多进步主义者相信个人可以指导人类和社会的进步，他们把教育视为推动社会进步和解决城市化、贫困或移民等问题的灵丹妙药。”

Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.

. See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.

.例如，吉尔伯特与萨利文的《艾达公主》中的歌曲《贵妇人》描述了人类的由来(但不是女人!)来自猿类。

Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faire economics. Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.

. Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.

.达尔文认为黑人与欧洲人具有相同的基本人性，并且在精神上有许多相似之处，这一观点得到了1826年约翰 · 埃德蒙斯通的经验教训的支持。

Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "survival of the fittest" as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's polygenistic ideas of human development. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species. Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.

He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"

他反对虐待土著人民，比如说屠杀巴塔哥尼亚的男人、女人和孩子，“这里的每个人都深信这是一场最公正的战争，因为这是针对野蛮人的战争。在这个时代，谁会相信这样的暴行会在一个基督教文明的国家发生? ”

After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilisation laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute.模板:Ref label

. Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".
(Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection .遗传学家把人类遗传作为孟德尔定律来研究，而优生学运动则试图管理社会，重点关注英国的社会阶层，以及美国的残疾和种族，导致遗传学家认为这是不切实际的伪科学。从自愿安排向"负面"优生学的转变包括美国的强制绝育法，纳粹德国将其作为基于恶毒种族主义和"种族卫生"的纳粹优生学的基础。< br/> ({ Cite news". Genetics. Vol. 154, no. April 2000. pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |标题= ignored (help); line feed character in |title= at position 42 (help)
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| last = Edwards | first = a.1 April 2000 | issue = April 2000 | volume = 154 | pages = 1419-1426 | pmc = 1461012 | pmd = 10747041 | ref = periodics | accessdate = 11 November 2008} < br/>)

The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.

. David Quammen writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.

.大卫 · 奎曼写道他的“理论是[达尔文]转向了这些神秘的植物学研究——写出了不止一本书，这本书完全是经验主义的，谨慎的进化论，但却是一个“可怕的讨厌鬼”——至少在一定程度上是这样，那些吵吵嚷嚷争论猿、天使和灵魂的人会离开他... ..。一个人。”大卫 · 奎曼(David Quammen) ，《聪明的按部就班者》(The Brilliant Plodder，review of Ken Thompson，Darwin’s Most Wonderful Plants: a Tour of His Botanical Legacy) ，芝加哥大学出版社，255页。《乌龟背面: 达尔文、加拉帕戈斯与进化中的伊甸园》 ，耶鲁大学出版社出版社，310页。《达尔文之前的进化论: 物种嬗变理论》 ，爱丁堡，1804-1834，爱丁堡大学出版社，222页。) ，《纽约书评》 ，第一卷。LXVII, no.7(2020年4月23日) ，页。22–24.引自他的评论第24页。

Works

Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

See also

|last        = Anonymous

| last = Anonymous

• Creation–evolution controversy

|year        = 1893

1893年

• European and American voyages of scientific exploration

|chapter     = CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN (Obituary Notice, Friday, April 21, 1882)

1882年4月21日，星期五，讣告查尔斯·达尔文

• History of biology

|title       = Eminent Persons; Biographies reprinted from The Times

著名人士传记，转载自《泰晤士报》

• History of evolutionary thought

|publisher   = Macmillan and Co & The Times Office

| publisher = Macmillan and Co & The Times Office

• List of coupled cousins

|place       = London and New York

地点 = 伦敦和纽约

• List of multiple discoveries

|pages       = 1–11

| 页数 = 1-11

• Multiple discovery

|volume      = III (1882–1886)

| 卷 = III (1882-1886)

• Portraits of Charles Darwin

|chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/eminentpersonsbi03timeiala/page/n11

| chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/eminentpersonsbi03timeiala/page/n11

• Tinamou egg

|accessdate  = 12 February 2019

2019年2月12日

• Universal Darwinism

|via         = Internet Archive

互联网档案馆

• 1991 Darwin

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}}

• Creation (biographical drama film)

| last =Anonymous

| last = Anonymous

| year =1882

1882年

Notes

| title =Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin

讣告: 查斯之死。达尔文

| first = Peter J.

第一，彼得 j。

| year = 2003

2003年

Citations

| title = Evolution: The History of an Idea

进化: 思想的历史

| edition = 3rd

3 rd

| publisher = University of California Press

加利福尼亚大学出版社

References

| isbn = 978-0-520-23693-6

| isbn = 978-0-520-23693-6

Category:English sceptics

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External links

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{{Library resources box

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分类: 进化生物学

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• The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online – Darwin Online; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews

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• Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary

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• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "模板:Cite wikisource/make link". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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• View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwin at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.

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This page was moved from wikipedia:en:Charles Darwin. Its edit history can be viewed at 达尔文/edithistory